LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


GIFT    OF 


1: 


CVrfSS 


SEWERAGE    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL 

IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT  OF 

NEW  YORK  AND  NEW  JERSEY 


REPORT 


OF  THE 


METROPOLITAN   SEWERAGE  COMMISSION 
OF  NEW  YORK 


Appointed  under  Chapter  639,  Laws  of  1906,  as  amended  by 
Chapter  422,  Laws  of  1908  of  New  York  State 


APRIL    3O,   191O 


GEORGE  A.  SOPER. 
JAMES  H.  FUERTES.  Secretary, 
H.  DE  B.  PARSONS. 
CHARLES  SOOYSMITH, 
LINSLY  R.  WILLIAMS, 


MARTIN  B.  ^ 
*  PRESS* 


NEW 


^ 


152 10J  -10  (B)  600 


LETTER   OF   TRANSMITTAL 


NEW  YOKK.  April  30,  1910 

Honorable  WILLIAM  J.  GAYNOR,  Mayor  of  The  City  of  New  York, 
Executive  Chamber,  City  Hall.  New  York  City. 

SIR:  We  submit  herewith  the  report  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  of 
New  York,  which  was  created  to  study  the  conditions  of  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal 
in  the  metropolitan  district  of  New  York  and  formulate  a  general  plan  or  policy  for 
protecting  and  improving  the  sanitary  condition  of  New  York  harbor  and  neighboring 
waters  in  accordance  with  an  Act  of  the  State  Legislature,  Chapter  639,  Laws  of  1906, 
amended  by  Chapter  422,  Laws  of  1908. 

Most  of  the  work  here  reported  was  accomplished  after  the  membership  of  the  Com- 
mission was  reconstituted  in  January,  1908,  although  care  has  been  taken  to  utilize  all 
useful  information  collected  prior  to  that  date  by  members  of  this  Commission  and 
others. 

Upon  its  reconstitution  the  Commission  estimated  that  it  would  take  about  two 
years  of  time  and  an  expenditure  of  $75,000  to  complete  the  investigation  for  which  it 
had  been  created.  It  is  a  source  of  gratification  to  report  that  the  work  has  been 
finished  in  accordance  with  this  estimate,  notwithstanding  delays,  aggregating  thirteen 
months,  before  an  appropriation  could  be  obtained  and  salaries  paid  to  the  assistants 
whom  it  was  necessary  to  employ  for  clerical  and  professional  work. 

Part  of  the  success  of  the  investigation  has  been  due  to  co-operation  received  from 
various  departments  of  The  City  of  New  York  and  the  United  States  Government.  The 
United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  aided  in  studies  of  tides;  the  Corps  of  Engi- 
neers United  States  Army  furnished  data  concerning  solid  deposits  and  dredging  opera- 
tions in  the  harbor;  the  Lighthouse  Board  permitted  tests  of  the  water  to  be  made  at 
their  stations;  the  Department  of  Docks  and  Ferries  of  The  City  of  New  York  gave 
the  use  of  laboratory  space;  the  Department  of  Health  of  The  City  of  New  York  fur- 
nished statistical  information  and  made  special  bacteriological  analyses;  the  Depart- 
ment of  Street  Cleaning  of  The  City  of  New  York  supplied  information  concerning 
the  quantities  of  garbage  dumped  at  sea;  the  New  York  Zoological  Society  furnished 
laboratory  space  and  tanks  for  experimental  purposes  in  the  New  York  Aquarium.  The 
Borough  Presidents  of  New  York  and  the  chiefs  of  sewer  bureaus  in  the  many  cities 
and  towns  in  the  metropolitan  district  courteously  afforded  opportunities  to  collect  valu- 
able data. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

METROPOLITAN  SEWERAGE  COMMISSION  OF  NEW  YORK, 

GEORGE  A.  SOPER, 
JAMES  H.  FUERTES, 
H.  DE  B.  PARSONS, 
CHARLES  SOOYSMITH, 
LINSLY  R.  WILLIAMS. 


.3755 


FOREWORD 


The  following  report  is  divided  into  three  sections  designated  respectively  Part  I, 
Part  II  and  Part  III. 

Part  I  is  a  summary  of  the  whole  report.  It  contains  a  brief  statement  of  the  nature 
and  extent  of  the  investigations  conducted  by  the  Commission,  the  principal  results  of 
the  investigations  and  the  more  important  of  the  Commission's  recommendations. 

Part  II  is  a  summary  of  the  investigations.  It  gives  the  main  facts  and  results  in 
convenient  form  for  reading  and  reference. 

Part  III  contains  a  classified  digest  of  the  data  collected  during  the  Commission's 
investigations. 

It  has  been  found  impracticable  to  publish  full  tabulations  of  the  analyses  and  ob- 
servations; these  would  have  occupied  several  hundred  pages.  It  is  believed  that  the 
summaries  presented  in  the  various  chapters  of  Part  III  will  prove  sufficient  for  most 
purposes;  officials  who  desire  to  study  the  observations  and  analyses  in  detail  may  have 
access  to  the  original  data  upon  request. 

The  report  does  not  contain  a  full  index.  An  extensive  table  of  contents,  combined 
with  the  free  use  of  italic  subheads  throughout  the  text,  will  enable  ready  reference  to 
be  made  to  the  different  subjects  dealt  with  in  the  report. 


Table  of  Contents 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART   I 
SUMMARY  OF   REPORT 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  INVESTIGATIONS  PAGE 

Plan  of  Investigations 41 

Analytical  Work    41 

Population  and  Sewerage 42 

Kxperlments  and  Tests 42 

Studies  of  Tidal  Phenomena 42 

Action  with  Respect  to  Trunk  Sewers 42 

Co-operation  Invited  from  New  Jersey 43 

RESULTS  OF  THE  INVESTIGATIONS 

Dangers  from  Bathing  and  from  Shellfish 43 

Local  Nuisances  43 

Condition  of  Water  in  Main  Channels 43 

Additional  Pollution  from  Trunk  Sewers 44 

ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  RAISED  BY  THE  LEGISLATURE 44 

RECOMMENDATIONS    46 

IN  CONCLUSION  48 


PART  II 

SUMMARY  OF  INVESTIGATIONS 
CHAPTER  I 

REPLIES   TO  THE  SPECIFIC    QUESTIONS   IN   THE   ACT 

CREATING  THE  METROPOLITAN  SEWERAGE 

COMMISSION 

SECTION  I 

THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT 

LAND  AND  WATER  AREAS  PAGE 

Extent  of  the  District 51 

WATERS  OF  THE  DISTRICT 

Hudson  River  51 

Kast  River  52 

Harlem  River 52 

Outer  Harbor,  Jamaica  Bay  aud  Atlantic  Ocean 52 

The  Kills   52 

Newark  Bay  52 

Small  Estuaries 52 

Depth  of  Waters 54 

Areas  of  Water  Surfaces 54 

DISTINCTIVE  TOPOGRAPHICAL  CHARACTERISTICS ">4 

POPULATION  50 

PBINCIPAL  INDUSTRIES  57 

GRADUAL  AND  INCREASING  POLLUTION  OF  THE  HARBOR  WATERS 58 

SECTION    II 
FEASIBLE  METHODS  OF  DISPOSING  OF  SEWAGE. 

Collecting   Systems    60 

Disposal  Through  Dilution 00 

Methods  of  Partial  Purification <W 

Grit  Chambers  60 

Settling  Basins  61 

Precipitating  Tanks 01 

Screens   61 

Filters  61 

Irrigation  61 

Sea  Disposal 61 

Slight  Mannrial  Value  of  Sewage 61 

Bacterial  Processes 62 

Fine  Screening 62 

Grease    Removal 62 

Land  Required 62 

Protection  of  Harbors  Abroad . .  .• 62 

Harbor  Pollution  in  the  United  States 02 

Extent  of  Existing  Purification  Works H3 

SECTION  III 

FEASIBILITY  OF  ADOPTING  A  GENERAL  PLAN  FOR  PROTECTING  THE  HARBOR 

WATERS  FROM  POLLI'TION 

Desirability  of  Interstate  Agreement 63 

Future  Conditions <M 

Quarantine  Regulations  Under  Interstate  Agreement 04 

Dumping  of  Garbage  Into  Harbor  Stopped 64 

Community  of  Interests  Should  Secure  Unity  of  Action 04 


TABLE    OF    CONTEXTS  11 

PAGE 

I'lan  for  Conservancy  by  New  York  in  (be  Absence  of  a  General  I'lan  for  the  Whole 

District  04 

SKCTION  IV 

FEASIBLE  METHODS  OF  ADMINISTRATIVE   CONTROL   FOR   A    METROPOLITAN 

SEWERAGE  DISTRICT 

Royal  Commission  011  Sewage  Disposal  of  Great  Britain Co 

German  Imperial  Board  of  Health GO 

Special  Commissions  CO 

Intercity  Agreements  Impracticable GO 

Commission  for  New  York  State  Recommended 60 

Duties  of  Proposed  Commission GO 

Appointment  of  Commission G7 

CHAPTER   II 
DIGEST  OF  THE  COMMISSION'S  INVESTIGATION 

SrcxiON  I 

BRIEF   SUMMARY    OF    THE    WORK    ACCOMPLISHED    BY    THE    METROPOLITAN 

SEWERAGE  COMMISSION 

Meetings   69 

Collection  of  Data 09 

Study  Trips 69 

Exhibition   09 

Hearing  on  Passaic  Valley  Sewer G!J 

Invitation  to  New  Jersey  to  Co-operate 70 

Co-oi>eratioii  of  Other  Departments  of  the  City  of  New  York 70 

Co-operation  of  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 70 

Assistance  from  Many  Sources 71 

Investigations    71 

Digest  of  Early  Data 71 

Analytical   Work 71 

Laboratory  71 

Volume  of  Analytical  Work 71 

Special   Investigations 72 

Ex isting  Sewerage  Works 72 

Inspection  of  Sewerage  System  of  Manhattan 72 

Sewer  Outlets 71.' 

Street  Refuse  Entering  Harbor 72 

Population  Estimates 72 

Future  Sewerage  Needs 72 

Pollution  of  Beaches  and  Bathiug  Establishments 72 

Transportation  of  Sewage  by  Currents 72 

Diffusion  and  Digestion 72 

Tidal  Phenomena ; 72 

Float  Studies 

Typhoid  Outbreak 

Digestion  of  Sewage  Solids 72 

SECTION   1 1 
FLOW  OF  TIDAL  WATER 

Net  Discharge  Seaward  Through  the  Narrows 73 

Total  Flow  Through  the  Narrows  in  Both  Directions 73 

Net  Flow  Seaward  of  Hudson  and  East  Rivers  and  Kill  van  Kull 73 

Velocities  of  Tidal  Flows 73 

Ranges  of  Tides 73 

Effects  of  Winds  on  Tides 7.1 


12 


PART    II.     SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 


PAGE 


Salinity  of  Harbor  Waters  ......................................................  ":: 

ImiKM-fect  Conditions  of  Assimilation  ............................................  7o 

Oscillatory  Movement  of  Harbor  Waters  ..........................................  75 

SECTION  III. 

POPULATION  AND  SEWAGE 

Population   ....................................................................  70 

Quantities  of  Sewage  Discharged  into  the  Harbor  ................................  70 

Points  of  Discharge  ............................................................  70 

Purification  Works  ..............................................................  77 

Extension  of  Outfalls  ...........................................................  77 

Joint  Outlet  Sewer  .............................................................  77 

Bronx  Valley  Sewer  ............................................................  77 

i'assaic  Valley  Sewer  ...........................................................  77 

Effects  on  Harbor  ..............................................................  77 

General  Plan  for  Conservancy  Needed  ...........................................  7S 

Future  Pollution  ...............................................................  78 

Establishment  of  Plan  for  Conservancy  ..........................................  78 

SECTION  IV 

CAPACITY  OF  NEW  YORK  HARBOR  FOR  SEWAGE 

Self  Purification  of  Harbor  Waters  ..............................................  78 

Oxidation  .....................................................................  79 

Dilution  .......................................................................  79 

Liquefaction  ...................................................................  79 

Reduction  of  Dissolved  Oxygen  ..................................................  79 

Sources  of  Dissolved  Oxygen  ....................................................  79 

Present   Deficiencies  ............................................................  79 

Sewage  Deposits  ................................................................  79 

Deposits  near  Sewer  Outlets  ....................................................  SO 

SECTION   V 

EFFECTS    ON    HEALTH 

Infection  of  Harbor  Waters  .....................................................  80 

Life  of  Bacteria  in  Harbor  Waters  ..............................................  80 

Methods  of  Acquiring  Infection  ..................................................  SI 

Obscure  Relation  Between  Polluted  Harbor  and  Sickness  ..........................  81 

Shellfish  and  Infected  Harbor  Waters  ............................................  8.' 

Typhoid  Fever  from  Oysters  ....................................................  82 

Bathing  in  Harbor  Waters  ......................................................  82 

Abolishment  of  Floating  Bathing  Establishments  ..................................  82 

SECTION   VI 
MAIN  FACTS  AND  OPINIONS  DERIVED  FROM  THE   INVESTIGATIONS  AS 

TO  THE  INTENSITY  OF  POLLUTION  OF  THE  HARBOR  WATERS  .....  8,'! 


CHAPTER  III 

SUMMARY   OF   EXISTING   CONDITIONS   WITH  COM 
MENTS   AND   SUGGESTIONS 

SECTION  I 
METHODS  OF  SEWERAGE  IN  USB 

Separate  and  Combined  Systems  ...........................................        85 

Relief  Sewers  ............................................................        85 

Pumping  Plants  ..............................................  88 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  13 

SECTION   II 

METHODS  OF  DESIGN  EMPLOYED  PAGB 

Determination  of  Quantity  of  Sewage  and  Storm  Water 88 

Quantity  of  Water  Reaching  Sewers 80 

Sizes   90 

Shapes  and  Materials -•  •  0- 

Veutilatiou  93 

Flushing  Arrangements 94 

Outlets   94 

SECTION    III 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERS 

Inspection  and  Cleaning 95 

SECTION   IV 
METHODS  OF  DISPOSING  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Purification   Plants 90 

Disposal  into  Adjacent  Waters 98 

SECTION  V 
FAULTS  OF  THE  SEWEBAGE  SYSTEMS 

Tide-locked   Sewers 99 

Improper  Sizes 100 

Condition  of  the  Sewers 102 

Recent    Inspection 10'J 

Deposits  on  Bottoms  and  Sides  of  Sewers 10- 

Administrative    Difficulties 10S 

Improper  Methods  of  Discharging  Sewage  into  the  Harbor 104 

SECTION  VI 

FUTURE  PLANS  OF  LOCAL  AUTHORITIES 

Disposal    105 

Improvement  in  Sewerage  Systems 108 

SECTION  VII 

HATIO  OF  VOLUMES  OF  HARBOR  WATERS  AND  SEWAGE 

Continuous  Sewage  Discharge 110 

Intermittent  Tidal   Flows Ill 

Future  Conditions 11 2 

More  Information  Needed 11- 

Advantages  of  Additional  Gauging  Stations 11- 

SECTION  VIII 

LACK  OF  CO-OPERATION  BETWEEN  THE  MUNICIPALITIES 

Sewage  Disposal 113 

Condition  of  Harbor  Waters 114 

Plans  for  Conservation 115 

SECTION    IX 

LACK  OF  CO-OPERATION  BETWEEN  DEPARTMENTS 

Between  Sewer,  Highway,  Dock  and  Magisterial  Departments 110 

With  Respect  to  Construction  and  Maintenance 117 

The  Public  'Service  Commission  and  the  Bureau  of  Sewers 117 

Right  of  Entry  for  Inspectors 118 

SECTION   X 

LACK  OF  UNIFORMITY'  IN  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

Storm  Water  Allowances 118 

Designs  119 

Ventilation  119 

Street  Washing 120 


PART  III 
DATA  COLLECTED 

CHAPTER    I 
MOVEMENT   FOR   A  CLEAN   HARBOR 

NKW  YORK  BAY  POLLUTION  COMMISSION  PAGE 

First  Report 1123 

Final  Report  124 

METROPOLITAN  SEWERAGE  COMMISSION  OF  NEW  YORK 

Appointment    125 

Appropriations    12S 

Work  Undertaken 128 

Increased  Appropriation  and  Extension  of  Time 129 

Unavoidable  Delays    130 

Payment  of  Employees 131 

Fixing  of  Salaries 131 

Case  of  Allen  vs.  Metz 131 

Civil    Service   Requirements 131 

Conclusion  of  Work  Required  under  the  Act 132 

CHAPTER  II 

POPULATION  OF  THE  METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  AND 

THE  VOLUME  OF  SEWAGE  DISCHARGED 

INTO  NEW   YORK   HARBOR 

POPULATION 

Introduction    133 

Estimates : 

John  R.  Freeman 133 

Dr.   Walter   Laidlaw 135 

Board  of  Water  Supply 135 

New  York  Telephone  Company 133 

Miscellaneous    137 

Growth  of  New  York  Compared  with  that  of  the  Whole  Country  and  of  Other 

Cities    137 

Kffect  of   Migration 137 

Possible  Reduction  of  Congestion 13'J 

Analysis  of  Previous  Estimates 139 

Methods  of  Estimating  Employed 141 

Summary  of  Results 141 

Table  of  Population 144 

VOLUME  OF  SEWAGE  DISCHARGED  INTO  NEW  YORK  HARBOR 

General  Considerations   145 

Table  of  Volumes 140 

CHAPTER    III 
TIDAL  PHENOMENA  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT 

SECTION  I 

PRINCIPAL  PHYSICAL  AND  HYDRAULIC  FEATURES 
GENERAL   CONDITIONS 

Introduction    14«j 

Flow  of  Laud  Water  into  the  Harbor 150 

Volumes  of  Water  in   Harbor 150 

Tidal   Ranges    152 

Lunar  Day    15;; 

Interference  Tides    153 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  15 

EI-TECT  OF  TIDAL  RANGE  PAGE 

East  River   154 

Hudson    River    154 

The  Kills   154 

The   Narrows    154 

The   Harlem    154 

Strength  of  Current 154 

Current  Velocities  1 55 

Tidal  Prisms    155 

SECTION    II 
PRINCIPAL  CURRENT   PHENOMENA 

THE  NARROWS  AND  OTHER  PARTS  OF  THE  HARBOR 

Uuderrun    150 

Tidal   Velocities    ]57 

Paths  of  Floating  Bodies 157 

CURRENT  CONDITIONS  IN  HARBOR  AT  EACH  LUNAR  HOUB 

1  Lunar  Hour 158 

2  Lunar  Hour 158 

3  Lunar  Hour 158 

4  Lunar  Hour 158 

5  Lunar  Hour 158 

G  Lunar  Hour 158 

7  Lunar  Hour 171 

8  Lunar  Hour 171 

9  Lunar  Hour 171 

10  Lunar  Hour 171 

11  Lunar  Hour 171 

12  Lunar  Hour 171 

PRINCIPAL  TIDAL  PHENOMENA  IN  THE  ESTUARIES  OF  THE  HARBOR 

Tidal  Rivers   171 

Jamaica  Bay   171 

Shrewsbury  River   172 

Gowanus  Canal  and  Newtown  Creek 172 

SECTION   III 

PHENOMENA   OF   DISCHARGE 
VOLUME  OF  DISCHARGE 

Through  the  Narrows 172 

Of  the  Hudson  River 174 

Of  the  East  River 174 

Of  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  Arthur  Kill 170 

Of   Harlem   River 178 

VOLUMES  OF  FLOW  INTO  AND  OUT  OF  UPPEB  BAY 

General  Conditions   179 

Methods  of  Estimating 179 

DISCHARGE  THROUGH  NEW  YORK  UABBOB  TO  SEA 

Net  Flow  into  Bay  from  Sound 180 

Net  Flow  Seaward  through  the  Narrows 180 


16  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

CONTROLLING  FACTORS  IN  THE  FLOW,  AND  EFFECT  OF  WIND  PAGE 

Land  Water  Discharge 1S1 

Variation  in  Heights  of  Tides 181 

Effects    of    Winds 181 

EFFECTS  OF  DREDGING,  OBSTRUCTIONS  AND  BULKHEADS 

Reclamations    181 

Pier   Extensions    181 

Dredged  Channels  181 

EBB  AND  FLOOD  VELOCITIES  IN  THE  HARBOR 

Mean,  Maximum  and  Minimum 182 

CHAPTER   IV 
HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS  SHOWN  BY  FLOATS 

SECTION   I 

FLOAT     EXPERIMENTS 
METHODS   OF   WORK    EMPLOYED 

Can  Floats 184 

Spar  Floats  184 

Methods  of  Observing  Floats 18." 

Experiments  of  1907 18T> 

Experiments  of  1908 185 

Experiments  of  1909 18o 

RESULTS  OF  FLOAT  EXPERIMENTS 

Hudson  River   ISO 

Harlem  River  188 

Upper  East  River 192 

Lower  East  River 194 

Upper  Bay  200 

Records  Made  on  Flood  Currents 204 

Records  Made  on  Ebl>  Currents 204 

Newark  Bay,  Kill  van  Kull  and  Arthur  Kill 20r. 

Lower  Bay    209 

Jamaica   Bay    210 

RELIABILITY  OF  RESULTS 211 

SECTION  II 

CURRENT     OBSERVATIONS 
METHODS  AND  RESULTS  OF  OBSERVATIONS 

Robbins  Reef 212 

Jersey  Flats 214 

Rockaway  Inlet 215 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  17 
CHAPTER    V 

SEWERAGE     AND     SEWAGE      DISPOSAL     WORKS  OF 
THE   MUNICIPALITIES   IN   THE    METRO- 
POLITAN    DISTRICT 

SECTION  I 

SEWERAGE     WORKS     OF     NEW     YORK     CITY 
BOROUGH  op  MANHATTAN 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

PACE 

Principal   Topographical   Characteristics 217 

Account  of  Growth  of  Sewerage  System 218 

SEWERAGE  WOBKS 

Sewers    220 

Outfalls    221 

Ventilation    228 

Growth   of   System 228 

Unsewered  Streets    229 

Effect  of  Subway  Construction  on  Sewerage  System 22U 

Changes  in  System  Suggested  to  Facilitate  Street  Washing 230 

Desirability  of  Reconstruction  of  Certain  of  the  Sewers  on  the  Separate  Plan  231 

Public  Service  Commission  and  the  Sewers 231 

Recommendations 232 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWEKAOE  SVSTEIF 

Cleaning  Basins  232 

Cleaning   Sewers    232 

Condition  of  the  Sewers 234 

Ordinance  Against  Steam,  Acids,  etc 234 

Reconstruction    235 

Troubles  and  Complaints 235 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Discharge  into  Harbor 230 

Sewage  Deposits  along  Water  Front 23ti 

Nuisances 237 

The  Crowding  of  Sewage  Shoreward  by  Currents 237 

Effect  on  Public  Bathing  Establishments 238 

Future  Conditions   238 

BOROUGH  OF  BROOKLYN 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics 239 

Distribution  of  Population 240 

General  Conditions   241 

Bureau  of  Sewers 242 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Design    243 

The  Sewers   245 

Catch  Basins 24G 

Ventilation    24(5 

House  Connections   248 

Outfalls    24t! 

Growth  of  the  System 249 

Sewers  and  Subway  Construction 251 


18  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

RELIEF  SEWEBS  PAGE 

Greene  Avenue  Relief  Sewer 252 

Additional  Relief  Sewers -i>- 

Division  No.  1,  Main  Relief  Sewers 2o2 

Division  No.  2,  Main  Relief  Sewers 2o:J 

Gowanus  Canal   2atJ 

Gowanus  Flushing  Tunnel ~~)4 

Third  Avenue  Relief  Sewer 255 

Brooklyn-Queens  Interborough  Sewer 255 

Wallabout  Channel  Relief  Sewer 255 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  SYSTEM 

Inspection   253 

Basin  Cleaning  25(i 

Washing  Street  Sweepings  into  Basins 250 

Disposal  of  Basin  Deposits 250 

Store  Yards  250 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

TIDAL  DISCHARGE  257 

Newtown  Creek    257 

Wallabout  Bay  257 

Gowanus  Canal    2oS 

Coney  Island  Creek 258 

Paerdegat  Creek  258 

Effect  on  Shell  Fisheries 258 

Pollution  of  Harbor  Waters '. 25'J 

Pollution  of  Jamaica  Bay 25!) 

SKWACE  PURIFICATION  PI-ANTS 

Coney  Island  Plants 200 

East  New  York  Plant 201 

Quality  of  Effluent 202 

PLANS  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  SEWF.RS  FOR  THE  FUTURE 

Proposed  Coney  Island  Plant 20:.! 

Proposed  Xew  Twenty-sixth  Ward  Plant . .'. 205 

Proposed  Paerdegat  Plant 205 

Proposed  Shellbank  Creek  Plant 20j 

BOROUGH  OF  THE  BRONX 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics 205 

Distribution  of  Population 200 

General  Conditions  200 

Proposed  Unionport  Sewers 207 

Relief  Sewers   2(W 

Bureau  of  Sewers 208 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Design  208 

Sewers   200 

Brook  Avenue  Sewer 260 

Broadway  Outlet  Sewer 270 

Farragnt  Street  Sewer 271 

Tiffany  Avenue  Sewer 271 

Jerome  Avenue  Sewer 271 

East  One  Hundred  and  Forty-ninth  Street  Sewer 272 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  19 


The  Sewers  of  Uniouport. 


PAGE 

272 

City  Island  Sewers 272 

Catch  Basins 273 

Ventilation    273 

Flushing    273 

Outfalls    27;i 

Growth  of  the  System 270 

Construction  Difficulties   27G 

Plans  of  Local  Authorities  for  Future  Work 277 

RELIEF  SEWERS 

Webster  Avenue  Relief  Tunnel 277 

Truxton   Street  Relief   Sewer 277 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Inspections     277 

Cleaning  Sewers    278 

Cleaning  Catch  Basins 27S 

Steam  in  Sewers 278 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal  Discharge  278 

BOROUGH  or  QUEENS 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal   Topographical   Characteristics 279 

Municipalities  in  the  Borough 279 

Bureau  of  Sewers 281 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Old   Sewers    282 

Design    282 

Location  and  Sizes  of  the  Sewer  Outlets 283 

Elevation  of  Outlets 284 

Materials    284 

Ventilation    284 

Flush  Tanks  284 

\KW  SEWERS 

Area  North  of  Newtown  Creek 284 

Ridgewood    Area 284 

Flushing   , 284 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  .SEWERAGE 
First  Ward 

Existing  Sewers  285 

Proposed  Sewers   285 

Second  Ward    955 

Third  Ward   285 

Fourth  Ward   280 

Fifth  Ward 

Extent  of  the  System 286 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Inspections    287 

Cleaning    287 

Disposal  of  Cleanings 287 


l'(J  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 
TIDAL  DISCHARGE 

Long  Island  City 2S? 

Ridgewood    28S 

Elmhurst    288 

Flushing  District    -88 

DISPOSAL  PLANTS 

Jamaica    -88 

Far  Rockaway   2SS 

Elmhurst 289 

Supervision    -"JO 

COMPLAINTS  AND  NUISANCES 

Whitestone    290 

Newtown  Creek  290 

FUTURE  PLANS  or  LOCAL  AUTHORITIES 

Waterfront  of  Queens -'JO 

General  Sewerage  Plans -00 

Suggestions  by  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment 291 

Long  Island  City 291 

Richmond  Hill  and  Woodhaven 2'.M 

The  Rockaways  202 

Jamaica  Bay   Improvement 292 

Recommendations   292 

BOROUGH  OF  RICHMOND 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics 202 

Distribution  of  Population 293 

The  Bureau  of  Sewers 29;; 

SKWEHAGE  WOBKS 

Design    204 

Sewers    29-1 

Catch  Basins   29o 

Ventilation    293 

Flush  Tanks  2UD 

Outfalls    295 

Growth  of  the  System 297 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  SYSTEM 

Inspection 297 

Cleaning  Basins  207 

Disposal  of  Cleanings 208 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal  Discharge  29S 

Complaints    208 

Burning  of   Sludge 298 

SECTION    II 

SEWERAGE   OF   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT    IN    NEW    YORK    STATE 
EXCLUSIVE  OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  BRONX  VALLEY 

Historical 298 

Trunk  Sewer 299 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  21 

PAGE 

Topography     300 

Towns  within  the  District 300 

Opposition    301 

Approval  of  Plans 301 

Ontfall    301 

SEWEBAOK  OF  WHITE  PLAINS 

Sowers    302 

Sewage    Flow 302 

PurlHcation  Works   302 

Defects    303 

SEWERAGE  OF  TUCKAHOE 

Sewers    304 

Purification   Works 304 

Complaints    304 

SEWERAGE  OF  BBONXVILLE 

Sewers   300 

Purification  Works   305 

SEWERAGE  OF  MT.  VEBNON,  PELHAM  AND  PELHAJI  MANOR 

Pollution  of  Ilutchinsou  River 305 

Sewers  of  Jit.  Vernoii 305 

Sewers  of  Pel  ha  in 305 

Sewers  of  Peihaiu  Manor 305 

Mr.  Vernoii  Purification  Works 305 

SEWERAGE  OF  NEW  ROCHELLE 

Sewers  306 

Purification  Works   306 

SECTION  III 

SEWERAGE    OF    THE    NEW    JERSEY    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT 
GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Characteristics  of  the  District 307 

SEWERAGE  OF  NEWARK,  N.  J. 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Drainage  Areas   308 

Board  of  Street  and  Water  Commissioners 300 

Department  of  Sewers 30!) 

Department  of  Works 309 

SEWKBAGE  WORKS 

Design  300 

Velocities    310 

Materials    310 

Outlets    310 

Ventilation    310 

Basin  Design   311 

Flush  Tanks   311 

Principal  Sewers   311 

Interceptor    312 


22  PART    111.     DATA    COLLECTED 

PAGE 

East  Branch  Intercepting  Sewer 313 

East  Orange  Outlet  Sewer 313 

Vailsburg  Sewers  314 

Relief  Sewers  314 

Meadowbrook  Sewer  System 314 

Passaic  Interceptor  314  . 

Sewage  Flow 314 

Growth  of  System 314 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  SYSTEM 

Cleaning  31G 

Disposal   of  Cleanings 310 

Steam  in  Sewers 310 

Street  Cleaning 310 

Cost  of  Sewer  Maintenance 31(5 

DISPOSAL  or  THE  SEWAGE 

Into  the  Passaic  River 31(> 

Into  Newark  Bay 316 

Outlet  Nuisances   3]  6 

Future  Plans   316 

SEWERAGE  OF  PATERSON 

General  Conditions   317 

The  Sewers  317 

Population  Served  With  Sewers 319 

Outlets  3J9 

Quantity  of  Sewage 319 

MAINTENANCE  or  THE  SEWER  SYSTEM 

Inspections   ail) 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Into  Passaic  River 320 

Complaints    320 

Attempts  to  Stop  Pollution  of  River 320 

IMPROVED  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 

Mr.  Gray's  Report 320 

Mr.  Hazen's  Report 321 

Works  Proposed  321 

Future  Plans  of  Local  Authorities 322 

SEWERAGE  OF  PASSAIC,  N.  J. 

General  Topographical  Features 322 

Sewerage    300 

•Sewage   Disposal 390 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  CITY  OF  OBANGE,  THE  TOWNS  OF  MONTCLAIR  AND  BLOOMIIELD,  AND 

THE  BOROUGH  OF  GLENHIDGE 
UNION  OUTLET  SEWEB 

General  Topographical  Features 323 

Sewerage    303 

Disposal  of  the  Sewage 323 

SEWERAGE  OF  EAST  ORANGE,  N.  J. 

General  Topographical  Features 323 

Sewerage    324 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  23 

PAGK 

Original  Sewage  Disposal  Plant 324 

Present  Disposal 325 

Future  Plans 325 

SEWERAGE  OF  CLINTON,  GARFIELD,  LODI,  HASBKOUCK  HEIGHTS,  DELA  WANNA,  FBANKLIN, 
NUTLEY,  AVONDALE,  BELLEVILLE,  WOOUKIDGE,  C'AKLSTADT,  WALLINGTON, 
EAST  RUTHEEFOKl),  RUTHERFOBU,  LYNDIIUBST,  ARLINGTON,  KEARNEY, 
EAST  NEWABK  AND  HAKRISON 

Sewerage    320 

Future  Plans 326 

PROPOSED  PASSAIC  VALLEY  SEWER 

Origin  of  Project 32G 

The  First  Report 326 

Subsequent  Reports   327 

Present   Commission's   Plan 327 

Opposition    327 

Investigations  and  Government  Control 328 

Extent  of  the  Proposed  Works 32S 

Recommendation    330 

Future  Prospects 330 

JOINT  OUTLET  SEWEB  FOR  THE  SEWERAGE  OF  IBVINGTON,  VAILSBURG,  SOUTH  ORANGE, 
WEST  ORANGE,  SUMMIT,  MILBURN  AND  PARTS  OF  ELIZABETH,  NEWABK, 
ORANGE  AND  UNION  TOWNSHIP 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics 331 

South  Orange's  Need  for  Sewerage 332 

First  Joint  Action 332 

Legislation  333 

Contract  with  Elizabeth  and  Other  Municipalities 333 

Execution  of  Project 333 

ORGANIZATION  OF  MUNICIPALITIES 

For  Construction 334 

For  Maintenance 334 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Design  334 

Separate  System 334 

Velocity  of  Flow 334 

Recording   Gauges 334 

Equalizing  Tanks 334 

The  Sewer 334 

West  Branch 335 

East  Branch 335 

Outlet    335 

Extent  of  System 335 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SYSTEM 

Inspections    336 

Cleaning   336 

Entrance  of  Ground  Water 330 


24  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

I  JIM-US.M,  OF  HIE  SEWAGE 

Tidal  Discharge  •°>:!(> 

Investigations   336 

Effects  of  Discharge 330 

Future  Conditions  337 

FUTURE  PLANS  OF  LOCAL  AUTHORITIES 

For  Disposal  *" 

For  Extension 337 

SEWERAGE  OF  ELIZABETH,  X.  J. 

GENERAL  FEATUBES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics 337 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Organization  for  Construction  and  Maintenance 33S 

THE  OLD  SYSTEM 

The  Sewers  338 

Old  River  Outlets 338 

Elevation   of  Outlets 338 

NEW  SYSTEM 

Design    33U 

Sizes    3:50 

Capacity    3:50 

Ventilation    33U 

Interceptor    330 

Pumping    Station    339 

Discharge  Outlet   340 

Extent  of  System   340 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Cleaning    340 

Disposal   of  Cleanings 310 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal    Discharge    340 

Meadow  Outlets 341 

River    Outlets    341 

Nuisances  341 

Complaints    341 

FUTURE  PLANS  OF  LOCAL  AUTHORITIES 

Ultimate   Disposal    341 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  HACKENSACK  VALLEY 

SEWERAGE  OF  HACKENSACK 342 

SKWEBAOE  OF  BOGOTA 343 

SEWERAGE  OF  RIDGEFIELD  PARK 343 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  OTHER  TOWNS  ON  THE  WEST  SIDE  OF  THE  HACKENSACK  VALLEY 343 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  TOWNS  ON  THE  EAST  SIDE  OF  THE  HACKENSACK  VALLEY 343 

SEWERAGE  OF  ENGLEWOOD 344 

FUTURE  PLANS  FOR  THE  HACKENSACK  VALLEY 344 

SEWERAGE  OF  BAYONNE,  N.  J. 
GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics 345 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  1>.~> 

SEWERAGE  WORKS  PAGE 

Organization    for   Construction   ai'd    Maintenance 345 

Old   System    345 

New    System    345 

Ventilation    340 

Outlets     340 

Extent  of  System    347 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWEBAGE  SYSTEM 

Cleaning    347 

Disposal   of  Cleanings    347 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal    Discharge    347 

Sanitary  Outlets    347 

Nuisances    348 

Future  Plans    34S 

SEWERAGE  OF  JERSEY  CITY,  N.  J. 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal    Topographical    Characteristics 348 

Si'WEHAGE   WORKS 

Old   Sewers    348 

Organization  for  Construction  and  Maintenance 348 

Design     340 

Formula     349 

Materials    340 

Outlets    340 

Grades    300 

Difficulties     351 

RELIEF  SEWERS 

Division    Street    351 

Jackson  and  Claremont  Avenue  Relief 351 

Grant  Avenue  Relief   352 

Van  Winkle  Avenue 35:2 

OTHER  RECENT  CONSTRUCTIONS 

Clendenin    Avenue    352 

Jersey  City-Bergen  Joint  Sewer 352 

Extent   of    System 352 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Inspection    353 

Cleaning    353 

Disposal  of  Cleanings 353 

Ventilation     353 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal    Discharge    353 

Ilackensack    River    353 

Penhorn    Creek    353 

Newark    Bay    354 

Hudson    River  "* 354 

Mill   Creek 354 

Future  Plans    354 

Greenville    354 

Grand  Avenue   354 


20  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

SEWEKAGE  or  HOBOKEN,  X.  J. 

GKNEBAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS  PAGE 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics 355 

SEWEBAGE  WORKS 

Design  of  Sewers   335 

Old  System   355 

Outfalls    335 

Extent  of  the  System 300 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWLBAGE  WORKS 

Inspection    350 

Gleaning    350 

Disposal  of  Cleanings 350 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal    Discharge    350 

Tide-Locked  Sewers   357 

Xuisances    357 

Future  Plans   357 

SEWEBAGE  OF  THE  RAHWAY  RIVER  VALLEY 
GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics 357 

Municipalities  on  the  Watershed 35S 

SEWERAGE  WORKS   OF  THE   MUNICIPALITIES 

Rahway    35S 

Rahway   Reformatory    359 

Cranford    350 

Garwood    350 

Westfleld    359 

Milburn  Township    300 

Summit    300 

Orange    300 

West  Orange   300 

Union  Township 300 

South  Orange  Township  300 

South  Orange   301 

Factories    3d 

CHAPTER    VI 

FOULING    OF    THE  BEACHES    OF  LONG  ISLAND    AND 

NEW  JERSEY  BY  GARBAGE  WASHED  UP  FROM  THE 

SEA  DURING  THE  SUMMER  OF   1906 

SECTION  I 

RESULTS  OF  INSPECTIONS  * 

COLLECTION  OF  INFORMATION 

Purpose  of  Investigation    333 

Usefulness  of  Data 363 

Organization   for   Inspection 363 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  27 

SUMMARY  OF  INFORMATION  COLLECTED  PAGE 

Dumping  Grounds  and   Effect  of  Changing  Their  Location 364 

Effects  of  Winds  on  Travel  of  Garbage 364 

Fields  of  Floating  Garbage 364 

Rate  of  Travel  of  Garbage  towards  Beaches 364 

Return  of  Floating  Garbage  to  New  York  Harbor 364 

Distances  Traveled  by  Garbage 304 

Pollution  of  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey  Beaches  with  Garbage 365 

Quantity  of  Garbage  on  the  Beaches 365 

Winds  During  Summer  of  1006  Favorable  to  Small  Deposits 365 

Loss  of  Offensiveness  Due  to  Immersion 365 

Control  of  Future  Sea  Disposal  when  again  Necessary 365 

SECTION  II 
INSPECTIONS    BY    METROPOLITAN    SEWERAGE    COMMISSION 

THE  SHORES  OF  LONO  ISLAND 
WESTHAMPTON  AND  SMITHS  POINT  BEACHES 

Westhampton    Beach 366 

Smiths  Point  Beach 366 

Summary    360 

OPPOSITE  PATCHOGUF, 

Water  Island   366 

Summary    366 

OAK  ISLAND 

Oak  Island    366 

Oak    Beach    366 

Life  Saving  Station 360 

FIRE  ISLAND  AND  OAK  ISLAND 

Fire  Island 367 

Oak  Island    367 

Summary 367 

LONG  BEACH 

Long  Beach  Bathing  Beach 367 

LONG  BEACH,  July  30,  1906 

Long  Beach  Bathing  Beach 367 

Shore  to  West  of  Inn 367 

Shore  to  Point  Lookout  Life  Saving  Station 368 

Summary   368 

ROCKAWAY  BEACH  TO  CONEY  ISLAND,  July  11,  1906 

Rockaway   Beach    368 

Seaside    Boat    Landing 368 

Far  Rockaway   368 

Manhattan  Beach   368 

Brighton  Beach   369 

Bathing  Place,  Brighton   Beach 369 

Coney  Island,  Bathing  Beach 369 

Summary    369 

ROCKAWAY  POINT  TO  HOLLAND,  July  IS.  1906 

Rockaway    Park    369 

Belle  Harbor   369 


28  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

PAGE 

Rockaway  Park  Bathing  Beach 3t>y 

Sea  Beach  House  to  Iron  Pier 369 

Rockaway   Beach    3UU 

Hotel  Holland ;'-ti:) 

Summary   370 

HAMMKLS  TO  SEASIDE,  July  24,  1900 

Hainmels     " ' " 

Hauiinels    to    Arverue 370 

Arverne  Beach    370 

Arverne   to   Edgemere 370 

Beach  near  Club  370 

Edgemere  to  Far  Rockaway 370 

Far  Rockaway  Beach 370 

Seaside    370 

Summary    , 370 

BBTCIITON  BEACH  TO  MANHATTAN  BEACH,  July  10,  1906 

Brighton  Beach   371 

Shore  near   Manhattan   Beach 371 

Manhattan  Beach    371 

Manhattan  Beach  beyond  Oriental  Hotel 371 

Summary    371 

CONEY  ISLAND,  SEA  GATE  TO  WEST  BBIGHTOK,  July  14,  1906 

Sea  Gate  371 

Beach  to  Xortons  Point 371 

Hotel  near  Sea  Gate 372 

Sea  Gate  Beach  near  West  Brighton 372 

Coney  Island    372 

Amusement   Center,   Coney   Island 372 

Coney    Island    Beach 372 

Summary    372 

CONEY  ISLAND  AND  MANHATTAN  BEACHES 

Coney   Island    372 

Brighton   Beach    372 

Manhattan  Beach   372 

Along  Neckwater  beyond  Oriental  Hotel 372 

Summary    372 

THE  SHORES  OF  STATFN  ISLAND,  July  13,  1900 

SOUTH  BEACH  AND  MIDLAND  BEACH 

South    Beach    372 

Shore  to  Midland  Beach 373 

Midland   Beach    373 

Shore  to   Great  Kills 373 

Summary    373 

SOUTH  BEACH  AND  MIDLAND  BEACH,  July  25,  1906 

Fort    Wadsworth    373 

Millers   Beach    373 

Beach  to  Midland  Beach 373 

Ocean    View    Beach 373 

Midland   Beach    373 

Summary    '. 373 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  29 

FORT  WADSWORTH  TO  MIDLAND  BEACH,  August  20,  1000  PAGE 

South  Beach  to  Fort  Wadsworth 373 

Bathing  Beaches,  South  Beach 373 

Midland   Beach    374 

Bathing    Beaches,    Midland    Beach , 374 

Summary    374 

THE  SHORES  OF  NEW  JERSEY 

ATLANTIC  HIGHLANDS  TO  OCKAN  GROVE,  July  10,  1900 

Atlantic    Highlands    374 

Xormandie,  near  Life  Saving  Station 374 

Seabright     374 

Long   Branch    374 

Asbury    Park    374 

Ocean    Grove    374 

Summary    374 

SANDY  HOOK,  August   17,   1900 

Summary    375 

LONG  BRANCH  TO  SEABRIGHT,  July  27,  1900 

Long  Branch    375 

Seabright    375 

Summary    370 

SEABRIGHT  TO  POINT  PLEASANT,  August  13,  1900 

Seabright     370 

Asbury    Park 370 

Bradley    Beach        370 

Summary 370 

SEADRIGHT  TO  BET/MAR.  August  0,  1900 

Seabright    377 

West    End    Bathing    Beach 377 

Asbury    Park    377 

Beach  between  Ocenn  Grove  and  Belmnr 377 

Summary    377 

POINT  PLEASANT  TO  ASBURY  PARK,  July  28,  1900 

Point  Pleasant  377 

Asbury   Park    377 

Ocean  Grove  378 

Shore  North   of  Belmnr 378 

Summary    378 

ASBTJRY  PARK  TO  POINT  PLEASANT,  August  7,  1900 

Asbury    Park    378 

Bradley  Beach   378 

Spring  Lake   373 

Sea   Girt    378 

Point  Pleasant 378 

Summary    379 

ASBURY  PARK  TO  SEASIDE  PARK,  August  14,  1900 

Asbury   Park    379 

Bradley  Beach   379 

Point  Pleasant   379 

Seaside  Park 379, 

Summary    .  879 


30  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

ATLANTIC  CITY,  August  10,  1906  PAGE 

Inlet  to  Heinze's  Pier 380 

Heinze's  Pier,  South  Along  Shore 380 

Summary    380 

THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  OCEAN  BETWEEN  LONG  BEACH,  L.  I.,  AND  BBADI.EY 
BEACH,  N.  J.,  August  17  and  IS,  1900 

Large  Garbage  Fields 380 

Float  Observations   381 

Fields  of  Garbage  Off  Long  Branch 381 

Garbage  Fields  17  Miles  at  Sea 382 

Velocity  of  Travel  of  Garbage  Fields 382 

Garbage  Fields  in  Lower  New  York  Bay 3S2 

Summary    382 

SECTION  III 

INSPECTIONS   BY   LIFE   SAVINGS   SERVICE   OF  THE   NEW    JERSEY    AND 

LONG  ISLAND  COASTS 

COAST  OF  NEW  JERSEY 

Sandy  Hook 383 

Spermaceti    Cove    383 

Seabright    383 

Monmouth  Beach    383 

Long  Branch    383 

Deal    383 

Shark  River   384 

Spring  Lake 384 

Squan   Beach    384 

Bayhead    384 

Mantoloking    384 

Chadwick    384 

Toms    River    384 

Island  Beach    334 

Cedar   Creek    384 

Forked  River   ;>S-i 

Barnegat    385 

Loveladies  Island    385 

Harvey   Cedars    335 

Ship  Bottom  335 

Long  Beach    335 

Bonds    385 

Little  Egg  Harbor 335 

Little  Beach   335 

Brigantine    335 

Atlantic  City    335 

Absecon    3§5 

Great  Egg  Harbor   335 

Ocean  City    335 

Pecks  Beach   335 

Corsons  Inlet   335 

Sea  Isle  City  385 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  31 

PAQK 

Avalon    385 

Tatbatns    385 

Two  Mile  Beach 385 

Cold    Spring    385 

Cape  May    385 

COAST  OF  LONG  ISLAND 

Rockaway   Point    385 

Rockaway    v 385 

Long    Beach    386 

Point   Lookout    , 386 

Short  Beach   386 

Zachs    Inlet    386 

Jones  Beach    386 

Gilgo     386 

Oak  Island   386 

Fire    Island    386 

Point  o'Woods    386 

Lone    Hill    386 

Blue   Point    380 

Bellport 386 

Smiths   Point    386 

Forge   River    380 

Moriches    386 

Potunk     386 

Qnogue    386 

SECTION   IV 
QUANTITIES  OF  GARBAGE  DUMPED  AT   SEA  DURING  JULY  AND 

AUGUST,    ]OOC 

New  York  Garbage  Dumped  at  Sea 387 

CHAPTER    VII 
BACTERIAL  CONTENT  OF  THE  HARBOR  WATERS 

COLLECTION  AND  EXAMINATION  or  SAMPLES 

Collection  of  Samples 389 

Plating   of    Samples 389 

Locating   Samples    389 

GENERAL  RESULTS  OF  EXAMINATIONS 

Maximum  aud  Minimum  Counts 390 

Upper   Bay    391 

Hudson   River    391 

East   River    391 

Long   Island    Sound 392 

Harlem    River    392 

Kill  van  Hull 390 

Newark  Bay 392 

Pussalc    River    892 

Arthur   Kill    392 


32  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

PAGE 

Narrows    393 

Gravesend   Bay    393 

Lower  Bay   303 

Rockaway  Inlet   393 

Jamaica    Bay    393 

Atlantic    Ocean    303 

CHAPTER    VIII 

EVIDENCE  OF  POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS  WITH 

SPECIAL   REFERENCE  TO  THE  EXHAUSTION 

OF  THE   DISSOLVED   OXYGEN 

ANALYTICAL  MKTHODS 

Albert  Levy  Method   Used 399 

Testing  of  Method  by  Professor  Meizger 400 

Opinion  of  Professor  (Jill  on  Method 400 

Reagents  Used   401 

Collection   of  Samples 402 

Method  of  Making  Test 403 

Computation  of   Results 403 

Standard  Units   403 

Locating   Sampling  Points 404 

Tabular  Summary  of  Data 404 

DISSOLVED  OXYGEN  IN  THE  WATERS  OF  THE  UPPEB  P.AY 

Surface   and   Bottom 404 

Ebb   and   Flood  Tides 404 

Ix)cal  Deficiencies  405 

EAST  RIVEB  (From  Governors  Island  to  Hell  Gate) 

Surface  and   Bottom 405 

Ebb   and  Flood   Tides 405 

Local  Deficiencies  405 

EAST  RIVEB  (From  Hell  Gate  to  Throggs  Neck) 

Surface  and   Bottom 405 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides 405 

HrnsoN  RIVEB  (From  its  Mouth  to  Spuyteu  Duyvil  Creek) 

Surface  and   Bottom 400 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides 40G 

HUDSON   RIVEB    (From   Spuyten   Duyvil   to  Yonkers) 

Surface   and    Bottom 400 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides 400 

HARLEM  RIVER 

Surface  and    Bottom 400 

On   Average  of  Tides 40G 

Eastern  End   of  River 406 

KILL  VAN  KULL 

Surface  and  Bottom    407 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides 407 

NEWARK  BAY 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides 407 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  33 

PASSAIC  RIVEB  PAGE 

Exhausted  at   Lower  Limits  of  Newark 407 

At  Mouth   407 

Effects  of  Water  oil  Paints 407 

ARTHUR  KILL 

Surface  and  Bottom 408 

On  Ebb  aud  Flood  Tides 408 

THE  NARROWS 

Surface   and   Bottom 408 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides 408 

GRAVESEND  BAY 

Surface     408 

LOWER  BAY 

Surface   and   Bottom 408 

Deep    Samples    409 

SUMMARY    409 


CHAPTER    IX 

EVIDENCE     OF     POLLUTION     IN     THE     DEPOSITS  ON 
THE    BOTTOM    OF    THE    HARBOR 

METHODS  OF  IDENTIFYING  MATTERS  OF  SEWAGE  ORIGIN 

Bacterial  Evidence  of  Pollution 415 

Identification  of  Soap,  Fats  and  Animal  Debris 415 

Microscopic  Examinations    417 

Methods  of  Microscopic  Analysis 417 

SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS  OF  MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION  OF  KIVKR  AND  HARBOR  SEDI- 
MENTS BY  DE.  J.  H.  STEBBINS 

Harlem   River  between  Third  and  Fourth  Avenues 4VJ 

West    Sixty-ninth    Street    419 

Wallabout    Canal     420 

Center  of   Hudson  River   Opposite   Pier  A 420 

East  River  150  feet  from  Pier  Line,  Center  Broad  Street 420 

East  River    50  feet  from  Pier  Line,  Center  Broad  Street 420 

Off  Erie  Basin 421 

Kill  van  Hull   421 

Great  Kills 421 

EXAMINATIONS  BY  THE  METROPOLITAN  SEWERAGE  COMMISSION 

Method  Adopted  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission 422 

Collection  of  Samples  422 

Surface    Samples    422 

Sub-surface    Samples    423 

Preparation  of  Samples   for   Examination 423 

Methods  of  Examination    404 

Evidences  of  Pollution  424 

General  Condition  of  Harbor  Bottom 425 


34  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 


CHAPTER   X 

DIFFUSION    AND    DIGESTION    OF    SEWAGE    IN 
NEW    YORK    HARBOR 

SECTION  I 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  POLLUTING  WASTES 

Quantity  of  Fecal  Matter  Produced 427 

Composition  of  Sewage  of  American  Cities 428 

Composition  of  New  York  Sewage 428 

Weight  and  Bulk  of  Sewage  Solids 429 

Appearance  of  Sewage  43i 

Bacteria  in  Sewage  432 

SECTION  II 

THE  SOLIDS  OF  SEWAGE 
THE  SOUDS  WHICH  SINK 

Extent  of  Bottom  Pollution  433 

Power  of  a  Current  to  Move  Sewage  Particles 434 

Disintegrating  Effect  of  Water  on  Sewage  Solids 434 

Hydrolysis  of  Sewage  Solids  434 

Odors  from  Deposits   433 

THE  SOLIDS  WHICH  FLOAT 

Composition  of  tlie  Floating  Matters 430 

Appearance  of  the  Discharging  Sewage 437 

Transporting  Power  of  the  Currents 437 

Effect  of   Winds    438 

Movement  of  Solid  Particles  Toward  the  Shore 43.3 

New  York  Harbor  Sewage  Traps 43S 

THE  SUSPENDED  SOLIDS 

Nature  of  the  Suspended  Solids 430 

Effect  of  the  Velocity  of  the  Water  on  Transporting  Power 43!i 

Velocity  of  Flow  In  Sewers  In  the  New  York  District 439 

Velocity  of  Tidal  Currents  440 

Changes  in  Velocity  of  Currents 441 

Current  Velocity  Necessary  to  Move  Solids 442 

Lack  of  Uniformity  in  Currents 442 

Relative  Capacity  of  Land  Water  and  Sea  Water  to  Transport  Sewage  Par- 
ticles      444 

Experiments  to  Show  Relative  Rate  of  Deposit  of  Solid  Matters  in  Sea  Water 

and  Land  Water  444 

Distribution  of  Hard  and  Soft  Material 4-Jo 

Condition  of  Channels  Now  and  Formerly 445 

Normal  Solid  Matter  Carried  by  the  Hudson 44«i 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  35 

SECTION   III 

THE  LIQUIDS  OF  SEWAGE 

OIL  AND  GREASE  PAGE 

Grease  of  Industrial   Origin 447 

Grease  from  Dwellings   447 

LIQUID  ORGANIC  MATTERS  OF  SEWAGE 

The  Phenomena  of  Oxidation   447 

Source  of  Oxygen   448 

Kate  of  Oxidation  Dependent  on  Living  Organisms 448 

The  Two  Stages  of  Decomposition 440 

Normal  Quantity  of  Oxygen  in  Harbor  Water 449 

Theoretically  Permissible  Draft  Upon  the  Oxygen 450 

Amount  of  Oxygen  in  the  Water  of  New  York  Harbor 450 

Zones  Where  Oxygen  is  Depleted 451 

The  Supply  of  Oxygen    453 

Sewage  Saturation  and  the  Production  of  Odors 453 

Relation  Between  Diffusion  and  Digestion  of  Sewage 453 

SECTION  IV 

EXPERIMENTAL   STUDIES   OF   THE   DIFFUSION   AND    DIGESTION   OF 
SEWAGE   IN  NEW   YORK  HARBOR 

DIFFUSION  OF  SEWAGE  IN  NEW  YORK  HARBOR 

Definition    of   Terms    455 

Effect  of  Discharge  of  Sewage  at  the  Surface 455 

Effect  of  Discharge  of  Sewage  below  the  Surface 455 

Conditions  at  Boston  Outlets    450 

Ascent  of  Sewage  in  New  York  Harbor 456 

Flotation  Experiments  With   Solid  Objects 457 

Ascent  and  Diffusion  of  One  Liquid  in  Another 457 

Facts  and  Opinions  Drawn  From  the  Experiments 459 

DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  IN  NEW   YORK  HARBOR 

Conditions  Under  Which  the  Experiments  Were  Made 461 

Facts  and  Opinions  Drawn  From  the  Experiments 461 


CHAPTER    XI 

RELATION    BETWEEN    THE    POLLUTION    OF    THE 
HARBOR    WATERS    AND    PUBLIC    HEALTH 

SECTION  I 
INFECTION  OF  THE   HARBOR  WATERS 

INFECTIOUS  AND  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT 

Greater  New  York    463 

Westchester    County    465 

Nassau   County,  New  York 466 

New    Jersey     466 


36  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

TUBERCULOSIS  AND  TYPHOID  FEVER  PAGE 

Means  of  Disinfection  407 

Longevity  of  Tubercle  and  Typhoid  Bacilli 470 

Difficulties  of  Disinfection    471 

Pollution  of  Harbor  Waters  Through  Uwlisinfected  Sewage  Wastes 471 

Genito-Urinary    Diseases 472 

SECTION  II 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  POLLUTED  HARBOR  WATERS  ON   PUBLIC  HEALTH 
THROUGH    THE   CONSUMPTION   OF    SHELLFISH 

In  New  York  State  472 

In  New  Jersey    474 

Oysters  and  Clams  from  the  Metropolitan  Waters 474 

Oysters  and  Clams  in  Polluted  Waters 470 

THE  SHAD  FISHERIES 

Value  of  the  Catch  478 

Effect  of  the  Harbor  Waters  Upon  Fish  Life 480 

UNCOOKED  OYSTEBS  AND  TYPHOID  FEVEB 

Wesleyau  University  Epidemic  • 481 

Investigations  by  the  Local  Government  Board 482 

South-end-on-Sea  and  Yare 483 

Brighton  483 

Manchester    483 

London 483 

Conclusions  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal 483 

New  York  Harbor  483 

Lawrence,  L.  1 484 

Narragansett  Bay   484 

Investigations  of  New  York  State  Department  of  Health 485 

SECTION  III 
INFLUENCE   OF   THE    POLLUTED    WATERS    ON    PUBLIC    HEALTH 

THROUGH  BATHING 
BATHING  ESTABLISHMENTS  AND  BATHING  BEACHES 

Floating  Bathing  Establishments 480 

Inland  Bathing  Establishments   486 

Location  of  Floating  Bathing  Establishments 487 

CONTAMINATION  OF  WATER  OF  BATHING  ESTABLISHMENTS 

Manhattan-Hudson  River   494 

Manhattan-East  River   495 

Brooklyn    49(1 

DANGER  OF  BATHING  IN  THE  HARBOB 

Typhoid  Fever 497 

Diseases  of  the  Eye  497 

SECTION  IV 

FLIES,  INSECTS,  VERMIN  AND  OTHER  AGENCIES  AS  CARRIERS  OF  DIS- 
EASE GERMS  FROM  THE  POLLUTED  HARBOR 
FLIES  AS  CARRIERS  OF  DISEASE  GEBMS 

Jackson's   Report    498 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  ;17 

OTHKH  A<;KNI  IKS  IN  THE  SPREAD  <»•  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  PAOK. 

Rats  and  Vermin  498 

Driftwood     499 

SECTION  V 
IXFLVEXCK  OF  ODORS  OX  HEALTH 

Hospitals  Along  the  Waterfront  499 


CHAPTER   XII 

LEGAL    JURISDICTION    OVER    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL  IN 
THE  METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  OF   NEW   YORK 

JURISDICTION  BY  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Origin  of  Government  Control   301 

Power  and  Jurisdiction  of  the  Supervisor  of  the  Harbor 502 

The  Harbor  Line  Board  and  Suits  Against  New  Jersey 502 

JURISDICTION  UNDEB  INTERSTATE  LAW 

Terms  of  Agreement  Between  Xew  York  and  New  Jersey 504 

Application  of  Agreement  to  Disposal  of  Xew  Jersey  Sewage 504 

JURISDICTION  BY  THE  STATE  OF  XEW  JERSEY 

Jurisdiction  of  State  Board  of  Health  and  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commis- 
sion   505 

Principal  Laws  of  New  Jersey  with  Kespect  to  Sewage  Disposal 500 

Practical  Results  of  Xew  Jersey's  Jurisdiction 507 

JURISDICTION  BY  THE  STATE  OF  XEW  YORK 

General  Powers  and  Duties  of  the  Health  Commissioner 507 

Specific  Powers  of  the   Health  Commissioner   with   Respect  to  Sewage  Dis- 
posal      508 

Compulsory    Reports   from   Municipalities    508 

Penalties    509 

Regulations  Other  than  the  Health  Law  Applicable 509 

Practical  Results  509 

JURISDICTION  BY  THE  CITY  OF  XEW  YORK 

Duties  of  Borough  Presidents  510 

Discharge   of    Sewage    511 

Temporary  and  Private  Sewers   511 

Sewage   Disposal    Works    312 

Local  Board  of  Health  Control    512 

Sanitary   Code    513 

Practical  Work  of  the  City  Department  of  Health 513 

Board  of  Aldermen  514 

JURISDICTION  PROPOSED  BY  THE  XEW  YORK  CHARTER  COMMISSION  or  1900 

Bureau  of  Public  Improvements  and  Engineering  of  the  Board  of  Estimate 

and  Apportionment   515 

Bureau  of  Sewers  of  the  Department  of  Street  Control 510 


38  PART    III.     DATA    COLLECTED 

CHAFFER    XIII 
SALINITY   OF  THE  WATERS 

SECTION  I 
ROUTINE  OBSERVATIONS 

PAGE 

Method  Adopted    517 

Standards    51S 

Location  of  the  Saliuouieter  Stations 510 

Data  Collected   521 

Comments  on  the  Results  522 

SECTION  II 

MISCELLANEOUS  OBSERVATIONS   OF   SALINITY 

Lower  Bay 524 

The    Narrows     '<->'< 

Kobblus  Reef   52ti 

Upper  Bay,  Kill  van  Kull  and  Arthur  Kill 528 

IMer  A,  North  River  r,2s 

Hudson  River  from  the  Battery  to  Tarrytown 52'J 

Harlem  River  531 

East  River  aud  Long  Island  Sound 5.'!  1 

CHAPTER   XIV 

CONDITION   OF  THE  SEWERS   OF  MANHATTAN  AS 
SHOWN    BY   INSPECTIONS 

Equipment  aud  Method  of  Inspectiou 535 

Erosion    5::i; 

Steam  5.'!7 

Deposits    537 

Odors    540 

Obstructions    542 

Cracks    54." 

Defective  Brickwork 544 

Distortion    54<> 

Catch   Basins    54ii 

Sewer  Outlets  547 

CHAPTER  XV 
ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  FORCE  EMPLOYED 

Acknowledgments   549 

Technical   Assistants    54!) 

Saliuometer  Observers  550 


PART  I 

Summary  of  Report 


PART   I 
SUMMARY  OF   REPORT 

In  1906  the  Legislature  directed  The  City  of  New  York  to  appoint  the  Metropoli- 
tan Sewerage  Commission  of  New  York,  specified  the  qualifications  which  the  members 
must  possess  and  the  work  which  the  Commission  was  to  perform.  In  1908  the  Com- 
mission was  reconstituted  and  its  life  continued  to  May  1,  1910. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  INVESTIGATIONS 
PLAN  OF  INVESTIGATIONS 

After  considering  how  the  sewage  disposal  problems  of  other  cities  had  been  met, 
the  Commission  laid  out  the  line  of  investigation  which  was  to  be  pursued. 

The  immediate  objects  of  the  programme  were: 

First.     To  establish  the  facts  attending  the  discharge  of  the  sewage; 

Second.  To  determine  the  extent  to  which  these  conditions  were  injurious  to  the 
public  health  and  welfare;  and, 

Third.  To  ascertain  the  way  in  which  it  would  be  necessary  to  improve  the  condi- 
tions of  disposal  in  order  to  meet  the  reasonable  requirements  of  the  present  and  future. 

ANALYTICAL  WOEK 

The  capacity  of  the  waters  for  harmlessly  assimilating  sewage  was  a  subject  which 
had  to  be  taken  carefully  into  account  in  view  of  the  great  cost  of  the  works  which 
would  be  necessary  if  all  sewage  was  to  be  kept  from  entering  the  harbor.  For  this  rea- 
son there  had  to  be  undertaken  extensive  analytical  studies  to  show  the  conditions  of 
assimilation  under  various  circumstances.  The  studies  made  included  over  5,000  analy- 
ses of  water  or  solid  deposits.  Samples  from  all  parts  of  the  harbor  were  examined 
chemically,  bacteriologically  and  microscopically.  All  stages  of  tide  and  all  seasons  of 
year  are  represented  in  the  results. 


42  REPORT    AND    RECOMMENDATIONS 

POPULATION  AND  SEWERAGE 

A  study  was  made  of  the  sewerage  systems  of  New  York  and  the  other  cities  within 
twenty  miles  of  New  York  City  Hall  with  estimates  of  the  quantities  of  sewage  dis- 
charged from  the  houses  and  streets  by  the  human  and  animal  populations. 

Estimates  of  future  populations  were  compiled  for  the  several  municipalities  in  the 
metropolitan  district,  including  a  critical  review  of  estimates  by  other  authorities. 

EXPERIMENTS  AND  TESTS 

Experimental  studies  were  made  to  determine  the  possibility  of  diffusing  and  dis- 
posing of  sewage  through  the  waters  of  the  harbor  without  offense  or  danger  to  the  pub- 
lic welfare.  These  experiments  were  begun  in  the  Commission's  laboratory,  were  fol- 
lowed on  a  larger  scale  in  tanks  in  the  New  York  Aquarium,  and  were  concluded  in  the 
open  waters  of  the  harbor  by  the  aid  of  tank  steamers,  pontoons,  pumps  and  other  ap- 
paratus. 

To  determine  the  extent  to  which  public  bathing  places  and  shellfish  beds  were  pol- 
luted by  sewage,  powerful  dyes  were  placed  in  the  sewers,  and  the  course  subsequently 
taken  by  the  discolored  sewage  was  then  traced. 

STUDIES  OF  TIDAL  PHENOMENA 

A  theoretical  and  practical  investigation  of  the  tidal  phenomena  of  New  York  har- 
bor was  carried  on  in  co-operation  with  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 
In  this  study  especially  constructed  floats  were  set  adrift  and  note  was  made  of  the 
courses  which  they  took  under  the  influence  of  the  tidal  currents.  The  conditions  were 
studied  in  all  parts  of  the  harbor.  The  floats  were  followed  by  boats,  sometimes  for  sev- 
eral days  in  succession. 

ACTION  WITH  RESPECT  TO  TRUNK  SEWERS 

The  Commission  endeavored  to  ascertain  the  essential  details  of  the  trunk  sewerage 
projects  which  had  been  proposed  by  various  authorities  to  collect  the  sewage  of  inland 
municipalities  for  discharge  into  New  York  harbor.  As  a  result  of  these  studies  the 
Metropolitan  Commission  registered  a  protest  with  the  State  Commissioner  of  Health 
and  State  Engineer  and  Surveyor  against  the  Bronx  valley  project,  and  repeatedly  ex- 
pressed an  adverse  opinion  on  the  discharge  of  untreated  sewage  from  the  Passaic  val- 
ley sewerage  district  into  New  York  bay. 

An  examination  into  the  legal  jurisdiction  now  exercised  over  the  harbor  waters 
was  undertaken  in  order  to  aid  in  determining  the  best  form  of  administration  for  a 
comprehensive  system  of  sanitary  conservancy. 


RESULTS    OF    INVESTIGATIONS  43 

CO-OPERATION  INVITED  FROM  NEW  JERSEY 

At  the  instance  of  this  Commission,  and  in  accordance  with  the  legislative  Act 
which  provided  for  its  creation,  an  invitation  was  sent  in  1908  by  the  Secretary  of  State 
of  New  York  to  the  Governor  of  New  Jersey  inviting  New  Jersey  to  co-operate  in  the 
work  which  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  of  New  York  was  performing,  but 
this  invitation  was  without  result. 

RESULTS  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION 

Briefly  stated,  the  Commission  has  found  that  the  methods  by  which  sewage  is 
disposed  of  in  the  metropolitan  district  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  call  for  immediate 
and  far  reaching  improvement. 

The  problem  of  disposing  of  the  sewage  of  this  metropolitan  district  has  taken  on 
a  new  aspect  in  recent  years  owing  to  the  large  increase  of  population  which  has 
occurred.  The  waters  within  fifteen  miles  of  Manhattan  Island,  which  formerly  were 
of  ample  capacity  to  receive  and  dispose  of  the  sewage  which  was  discharged  into  them, 
are  rapidly  becoming  overburdened  with  the  wastes. 

DANGERS  FROM  BATHING  AND  FROM  SHELLFISH 

Bathing  in  New  York  harbor  above  the  Narrows  is  dangerous  to  health,  and  the 
oyster  industry,  already  driven  to  the  outer  limits  of  the  district,  must  soon  be  entirely 

given  up. 

LOCAL  NriSANCES 

The  Passaic  river,  the  Railway  river,  the  Bronx  river,  Gowanus  and  Newtown 
creeks,  and  the  Harlem  river  have  become  little  else  than  open  sewers.  Innumerable 
local  nuisances  exist  along  the  waterfronts  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  where  the 
sewage  of  the  cities  located  about  the  harbor  is  discharged.  Unless  prevented  by  a 
proper  system  of  regulation,  these  nuisances  must  inevitably  increase  with  the  increase 
in  the  quantity  of  sewage. 

CONDITION  OF  WATER  IN  MAIN  CHANNELS 

Not  only  does  the  discharge  of  sewage  now  produce  objectionable  conditions  near 
the  points  of  outfall,  but  the  water  which  flows  in  the  main  channels  of  the  harbor  above 
the  Narrows  and  in  the  East  and  Hudson  rivers  is  more  polluted  than  considerations 
of  public  health  and  welfare  should  allow. 

The  studies  made  by  this  Commission  show  that  the  digestive  capacity  of  this  water 
for  sewage  is  so  reduced  by  pollution  that  restrictions  should  at  once  be  placed  upon  the 
discharge  of  sewage  therein  to  prevent  the  harbor  from  becoming  positively  offensive. 


44  REPORT    AND    RECOMMENDATIONS 

It  has  been  proved  that,  contrary  to  popular  belief,  the  tidal  currents  do  not  flush 
out  the  harbor  satisfactorily,  but  cause  the  sewage  to  oscillate  back  and  forth  near  its 
points  of  origin. 

ADDITIONAL  POLLUTION  FROM  TRUNK  SEWERS 

In  addition  to  the  objectionable  conditions  produced  by  the  discharge  of  sewage 
from  the  cities  surrounding  the  harbor,  a  number  of  extensive  trunk  sewerage  projects 
have  lately  been  constructed  or  designed  to  carry  the  sewage  of  inland  municipalities 
for  disposal  into  the  waters  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  The  City  of  New  York.  These 
projects  include  the  Joint  outlet  sewer  of  New  Jersey,  which  drains  an  area  of  37 
square  miles  and  discharges  at  Elizabethport  opposite  the  Borough  of  Richmond ;  the 
Passaic  valley  sewerage  project,  which  will  drain  103  square  miles  and  discharge  at 
Robbins  reef  within  a  few  hundred  feet  of  New  York  city  line,  and  the  Bronx  valley 
sewer,  which  will  drain  35  square  miles  and  discharge  into  the  Hudson  immediately 
above  the  New  York  city  line. 

These  trunk  sewers  ultimately  would  add  greatly  to  the  polluting  matter  entering 
the  harbor.  The  total  capacity  of  the  works  mentioned  is  seven  hundred  million 
gallons  of  sewage  per  day.  By  the  time  these  sewers  are  running  at  their  full  capacity 
the  quantity  of  sewage  from  The  City  of  New  York  will  be  at  least  twice  what  it  is 
to-day,  or,  approximately,  one  thousand  million  gallons.  It  should  be  unnecessary  to 
sound  a  clearer  warning  of  the  future  condition  of  the  harbor  than  these  facts  indicate. 

ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  RAISED  BY  THE  LEGISLATURE 

The  following  are  the  specific  questions  raised  by  the  Legislature  in  the  act  which 
provided  for  the  creation  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  of  New  York  and 
the  Commission's  answers  to  these  questions: 

Question  1.  Is  it  desirable  and  feasible  for  The  City  of  New  York  and  the 
municipalities  in  its  vicinity  to  agree  upon  a  general  plan  or  policy  of  sewerage 
and  sewage  disposal  which  will  protect  the  waters  of  New  York  bay  and  vicinity 
against  unnecessary  and  injurious  pollution  by  sewage  and  other  wastes? 

Answer.  It  is  not  possible  to  protect  the  waters  of  New  York  bay  and 
vicinity  by  intercity  agreement.  There  are  about  eighty  municipalities  con- 
cerned, and  the  subject  would  be  beyond  their  capacity  to  regulate  properly. 

Question  2.  What  methods  of  collecting  and  disposing  of  the  sewage  and 
other  wastes  which  pollute,  or  may  eventually  pollute,  the  waters  contemplated 
in  this  act  are  most  worthy  of  consideration? 

Answer.  The  methods  of  collecting  and  disposing  of  sewage  in  the  metro- 
politan district  most  worthy  of  consideration  are  district  collecting  sewers 
leading  to  local  works  for  purifying  the  sewage  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree, 
depending  upon  the  facility  with  which  the  effluent  can  then  be  disposed  of 


HESULTS     OF     INVESTIGATIONS  45 

without  injury  to  the  public  welfare.  The  principles  of  purification  most  worthy 
of  consideration  are  sedimentation,  screening,  filtration  and  sterilization  applied 
with  such  modifications  as  experience  in  other  places  and  local  circumstances 
indicate. 

Qiti'xtion  3.  Is  it  desirable  to  establish  a  sewerage  district  in  order  properly 
to  dispose  of  the  wastes,  and  adequately  protect  the  purity  of  the  waters,  con- 
templated in  this  act,  and,  if  so,  what  should  be  the  limits  and  boundaries  of  this 
sewerage  district? 

Answer.  It  is  desirable  to  establish  a  sewerage  district  in  order  properly  to 
dispose  of  the  wastes,  and  the  Commission  believes  that  this  would  be  the  best 
way  in  which  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  harbor  could  be  conserved.  The  most 
desirable  limits  for  the  sewerage  district  would  include  a  territory  of  about 
seven  hundred  square  miles,  about  half  of  which  would  be  in  New  York  and  half 
in  New  Jersey. 

If  it  is  not  possible  at  the  present  time  to  create  an  interstate  sewerage  dis- 
trict, a  metropolitan  sewerage  district  and  commission  for  New  York  State 
should  be  created  without  delay.  The  limits  and  boundaries  of  this  district 
should  include  The  City  of  New  York  and  those  parts  of  Nassau  and  West- 
Chester  counties  the  sewage  of  which  flows,  or  might  be  made  to  flow,  into  the 
harbor. 

Question  4.  What  would  be  the  best  system  of  administrative  control  for 
the  inception,  execution  and  operation  of  a  plan  for  sewerage,  and  ultimate  sew- 
age disposal,  of  a  metropolitan  sewerage  district;  whether  by  the  action  of 
already  existing  departments  and  provisions  of  government,  by  the  establishment 
of  separate  and  distinct  sewerage  districts  and  permanent  commissions  in  each 
State,  by  one  interstate  metropolitan  sewerage  district  and  commission  to  be  es- 
tablished by  agreement  between  the  two  States,  this  agreement  if  necessary  to  be 
ratified  by  Congress,  or  by  other  means? 

Ansiccr.  The  best  system  of  administrative  control  would  be  an  interstate 
sewerage  commission,  established  by  Acts  of  the  Legislatures  of  New  York  and 
New  Jersey,  these  Acts  to  be  confirmed  by  Congress.  If  this  joint  action  be- 
tween the  two  States  cannot  be  brought  about,  or  is  not  considered  to  be  feasible 
at  the  present  time,  the  duty  of  carrying  out  this  policy  of  conservancy,  as 
far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  commission  for 
the  metropolitan  territory  of  New  York,  the  expectation  being  that  New  Jersey 
will  later  create  a  similar  commission  to  co-operate  in  regulating  the  conditions 
of  sewage  disposal  in  the  interest  of  the  common  welfare. 

Existing  departments  and  provisions  of  government  could  not  ap- 
propriately nor  adequately  deal  with  this  question.  The  problems  to  be 
confronted  are  of  unusual  difficulty  and  complexity,  owing  to  the  great  extent  of 
territory  (approximately  seven  hundred  square  miles),  the  large  population  (ap- 
proximately five  million  inhabitants  to-day,  and  more  than  twice  this  number  by 
1940),  and  the  many  liydrographic,  sanitary  and  economic  questions  which  must 
be  considered  and  adjusted  between  the  several  localities  concerned. 

A  separate  and  distinct  sewerage  district  and  a  permanent  commission  in 
each  State  would  be  an  effective  instrument  toward  the  accomplishment  of  the 
end  desired,  and  it  would  probably  be  more  feasible  at  this  time  to  create  two 
separate  commissions  than  a  single  metropolitan  commission  having  jurisdic- 
tion over  both  States.  If  two  commissions  could  be  so  formed  as  to  act  in  har- 
mony, the  effect  would  be  nearly  that  of  one  interstate  commission. 


46  REPORT  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

The  remedy  which  the  Commission  recommends  is  the  result  of  careful  considera- 
tion of  various  plans  of  conservancy  which  have  been  adopted  in  other  populous  cen- 
ters in  Europe  and  America. 

The  Commission  is  of  opinion  that  the  metropolitan  territory  should  be  divided 
into  sections,  with  boundaries  to  be  determined  partly  by  the  quantities  of  sewage 
produced,  partly  by  the  facilities  which  are  open  in  the  several  localities  for  dispos- 
ing of  the  wastes  in  a  sanitary  manner  and  partly  by  considerations  of  cost. 

No  system  of  conduits  designed  to  collect  the  sewage  of  the  whole  metropolitan 
district  and  carry  it  to  a  single  point  for  disposal  is  practicable.  To  a  considerable 
extent  purification  works,  embodying  the  principles  of  sedimentation,  screening  and 
filtration  should  be  employed. 

There  should  be  prepared  an  outline  plan  to  which  all  future  sewerage  work 
should  conform  so  far  as  that  work  relates  to  the  ultimate  disposal  of  sewage. 

There  should  also  be  plans,  drawn  in  some  detail,  for  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  of 
individual  districts,  beginning  with  those  where  the  need  for  improvement  is  greatest. 

This  programme  involves  for  the  immediate  future  no  expenditure  or  commitment 
of  City  or  State  beyond  the  expenses  of  the  commission  for  the  preparation  of  plans. 

In  addition  to  the  preparation  of  a  general  plan  for  conservancy,  the  Metropoli- 
tan Sewerage  Commission  makes  the  following  specific  recommendations: 

A  large  portion  of  the  sewage  now  discharged  into  the  Harlem  river  and  into  the 
upper  part  of  the  East  river  should  be  intercepted  and  taken  elsewhere  for  disposal 
in  order  to  do  away  with  the  nuisances  now  existing  in  these  streams. 

A  special  detailed  study  should  be  made  immediately  of  improved  sewerage  and 
sewage  disposal  for  the  portions  of  the  Boroughs  of  Queens  and  Brooklyn  bordering 
on  Jamaica  bay  and  the  East  river  at  its  entrance  to  Long  Island  Sound,  with 
a  special  reference  to  plans  for  the  interception  of  the  sewage  and  the  determination 
of  the  kind  and  degree  of  purification  required  in  each  locality. 

Plans  should  be  prepared  as  soon  as  practicable,  in  conjunction  with  the  Bureau 
of  Sewers  and  the  sewer  division  of  the  Public  Service  Commission  for  the  re- 
construction of  the  sewers  of  Manhattan  on  the  separate  plan,  the  desirability  of  fol- 
lowing this  recommendation  being  dependent  on  the  construction  of  additional  rapid 
transit  subways  on  streets  and  avenues  traversing  the  city  from  north  to  south,  the 
new  plans  to  preserve  for  use  the  existing  sewers  to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible. 

With  respect  to  large  trunk  sewer  projects  designed  to  discharge  into  New  York 
harbor,  such  as  the  Passaic  valley  and  Bronx  valley  sewers,  this  Commission 


RESULTS     OF     INVESTIGATIONS  47 

recommends  that  an  adequate  degree  of  purification  of  the  sewage  be  insisted  on  under 
a  form  of  agreement  which  can  be  practically  and  legally  enforced. 

The  agreement  entered  into  in  1910  between  the  United  States  Government  and 
the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners  contains  provisions  inimical  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  City  of  New  York  and  the  other  cities  bordering  on  New  York  harbor 
in  New  York  State  as  well  as  in  New  Jersey  and  it  is  recommended  that  the  State 
of  New  York  continue  to  press  the  suit,  from  which  the  United  States  Government 
has  withdrawn,  against  the  State  of  New  Jersey  and  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage 
Commission,  and  that  the  City  of  New  York  apply  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  for  permission  to  intervene  and  become  a  party  to  this  suit  to  the  end 
that  proper  provision  may  be  made  to  protect  the  public  interests  and  the  health  and 
welfare  of  the  population  of  the  entire  metropolitan  district. 

The  Commission  recommends  that  great  care  be  exercised  in  the  location  of  pub- 
lic bathing  establishments  to  avoid  unsafe  localities,  and  that  the  free  floating  bath- 
ing establishments  around  the  water  front  be  gradually  abolished,  properly  planned 
interior  bathing  establishments,  supplied  with  pure  water,  being  substituted  therefor. 

A  study  of  the  methods  used  in  designing,  as  well  as  in  constructing  sewers  in 
the  metropolitan  district  has  shown  the  Commission  that  considerable  confusion  and 
waste  of  public  funds  results  from  the  diversity  of  practice  which  now  exists  in  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  district.  It  is  recommended  that  these  matters  be  systema- 
tized as  much  as  practicable,  and  sewer  designs  reduced  to  standard  forms,  where 
feasible. 

It  has  also  been  found  that  there  is  lack  of  co-operation  between  the  different 
departments  of  the  City  which  results  in  high  maintenance  costs  for  sewers.  This  is 
particularly  true  with  respect  to  the  relations  between  the  Bureaus  of  Sewers,  the 
Department  of  Docks  and  Ferries,  the  Department  of  Street  Cleaning,  the  Depart- 
ment of  Water  Supply,  Gas  and  Electricity,  and  the  Department  of  Finance  and  the 
Public  Service  Commission.  Closer  co-operation  between  these  departments  and 
bureaus  should  be  established. 

The  Commission  recommends  that  proper  legal  steps  be  taken  to  give  the  inspec- 
tors of  the  Bureaus  of  Sewers  the  right  of  entry  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  house 
and  sewer  connections  in  private  buildings  where  these  are  connected  with  public 
sewers.  This  right  would  make  possible  the  protection  of  the  public  sewers  against 
the  discharge  therein  of  acids,  hot  liquids,  steam  and  strong  solutions  which  tend 
to  destroy  the  materials  of  which  the  sewers  are  constructed. 

The  data  upon  which  the  foregoing  recommendations  are  based  will  be  found  in 
Parts  II  and  III  of  this  report. 


48  REPORT    AND     RECOMMENDATIONS 

IN  CONCLUSION 

In  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  Legislature,  the  Metropolitan  Sewer- 
age Commission  has  made  a  thorough  investigation  into  the  present  and  probable  future 
condition  of  the  waters  of  New  York  bay  and  vicinity  and  has  formulated  a  general  plan 
or  policy  by  which  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  harbor  can  be  permanently  protected 
and  improved. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  duty  of  carrying  out  the  policy  of  conservation  here  pro- 
pc-sed  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  special  board  of  commissioners. 

The  first  duty  of  the  commission  proposed  would  be  to  utilize  the  information  which 
has  been  collected  and  plan  the  work  necessary  to  carry  out  the  general  recommenda- 
tions here  made. 

In  conclusion,  the  Commission  desires  to  state  with  all  possible  clearness  its  sense 
of  the  importance  of  putting  a  stop  to  the  unrelated  and  unsanitary  methods  of  sewage 
disposal  which  are  being  followed  in  the  metropolitan  territory  of  New  York  and  New 
Jersey  and  to  urge  that  prompt  action  be  taken  to  establish  an  effective  system  of  con- 
servancy to  protect  and  improve  the  condition  of  the  harbor. 


PART  II 
Summary  of  Investigations 


PART  II 

SUMMARY  OF  INVESTIGATIONS 
CHAPTER   I 

REPLIES   TO   THE   SPECIFIC   QUESTIONS   IN  THE  ACT  CREATING 
THE   METROPOLITAN  SEWERAGE  COMMISSION 

SECTION    I 

THE  METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT 
LAND  AND  WATER  AREAS 

The  legislative  Acts  under  which  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  of  New 
York  was  created  required  that  the  Commission  should  investigate  whether  it  was  de- 
sirable to  establish  a  sewerage  district  in  order  properly  to  dispose  of  the  wastes  and 
adequately  protect  the  purity  of  the  waters  contemplated  in  this  Act,  and  if  so,  what 
should  be  the  limits  and  boundaries  of  the  district. 

K. i- tent  of  the  District.  The  Commission's  studies  indicate  that  a  single  sew- 
erage district  is  desirable  and  that  it  should  include  about  700  square  miles  in  the 
States  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  all  within  about  20  miles  of  the  City  Hall 
in  Manhattan.  The  boundary  should  be  established  with  reference  to  natural  water- 
sheds and  with  regard  to  the  distribution  of  population  rather  than  with  respect 
to  municipal  or  State  limits.  The  boundaries  which  were  established  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  Commission's  studies  include  the  village  of  White  Plains  on  the  north, 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Raritan  river  on  the  south,  and  from  the  limits  of  the  City 
of  New  York  on  the  east  to  the  municipalities  of  Paterson,  Summit  aud  Perth  Am- 
boy  on  the  west.  This  territory  lies  within  a  distance  which  ranges  between  15  and 
HO  miles  of  the  City  Hall  on  Manhattan  Island.  The  territory  included  within  this 
boundary  is  called  in  this  report  the  metropolitan  district. 

WATERS  OF  THE  DISTRICT 

Jlt«lison  River.  The  district  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts  by  the  Hudson 
river.  The  Hudson  averages  one  mile  in  width  and  flows  in  a  southerly  direction  to 
the  Upper  bay  and  thence,  through  the  Narrows,  to  the  Lower  bay  and  the  Atlantic 
ocean. 

The  current  in  the  Hudson  river  oscillates  back  and  forth  under  tidal  influence, 
the  flow  past  Manhattan  not  being  continuously  toward  the  sea.  Sea  water,  mingled 
with  more  or  less  land  water,  flows  up  the  Hudson  many  miles  above  the  limits  of  the 
metropolitan  district. 


52  SUMMAKY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

East  lih-vr.  Passing  along  the  east  side  of  Manhattan  Island,  and  separating  it 
from  the  end  of  Long  Island,  is  the  East  river  which  connects  the  waters  of  the  Upper 
bay  and  Long  Island  Sound.  Between  the  Manhattan  and  the  Brooklyn  shores  this 
river  varies  from  about  1,500  feet  to  more  than  three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  width.  After 
passing  Hell  Gate  it  attains,  at  Flushing  bay,  a  width  of  over  two  miles,  and  flows  into 
Long  Island  Sound  at  Throgs  Neck  and  Willets  Point. 

The  water  in  the  East  river  is  kept  in  motion  by  tidal  influences  in  Long  Island 
Sound  and  New  York  harbor.  The  water  oscillates  back  and  forth  in  accordance  with 
the  differences  in  elevation  between  the  waters  in  the  Sound  and  those  in  the  bay. 
The  East  river  is  not  strictly  speaking  a  river,  but  a  strait. 

Harlem  River.  Joining  the  East  and  Hudson  rivers  is  the  Harlem,  a  stream 
similar  in  some  respects  to  the  East  river,  the  motion  of  the  water  through  it  depend- 
ing upon  the  differences  in  elevation  between  the  East  river  and  the  Hudson  river  at 
different  times.  The  differences  in  elevation  between  the  Hudson  river  where  the 
Harlem  river  enters  it,  the  East  river  where  it  enters  Long  Island  Sound,  and  the 
Upper  bay,  are  due  to  the  fact  that  high  or  low  tides  are  not  readied  at  these  three 
points  at  the  same  time,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  amplitudes  of  the  tides  at  the 
three  points  are  different. 

Outer  Harbor,  Jamaica  Bay  and  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  southern  shores  of  the  Bor- 
oughs of  Brooklyn  and  Queens  lie  along  the  waters  of  the  outer  harbor,  Jamaica  bay, 
and  the  Atlantic  ocean,  Jamaica  bay  being  a  large,  relatively  shallow  inland  tidal 
basiii  covering,  with  its  tributaries,  some  19.27  square  miles. 

The  Kills.  The  Borough  of  Richmond  is  entirely  surrounded  by  water,  Newark 
bay,  Kill  van  Kull  and  Upper  bay  bounding  it  upon  the  north,  the  Lower  bay  bound- 
ing it  upon  the  east  and  south  and  the  Arthur  Kill  bounding  it  upon  the  west. 

Newark  Bay.  The  New  Jersey  district  is  traversed  by  three  comparatively  small 
streams,  two  of  which  empty  into  the  head  of  Newark  bay.  Newark  bay  is  some  six 
miles  long  and  averages  nearly  one  mile  and  a  half  wide.  It  lies  parallel  to  and  is 
separated  from  the  Upper  New  York  bay  by  the  peninsula  of  Bayonne,  which,  north 
of  Constable  Hook,  its  southern  terminus,  is  about  three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  Avidth. 

The  principal  cities  and  towns  in  the  New  Jersey  district,  excluding  Jersey  City, 
Hoboken,  Weehawken  and  a  few  small  settlements  along  the  Hudson  river,  lie  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Hackeusack  and  Passaic  rivers.  The  Hackeusack  and  the  Passaic  flow 
through  the  district  in  a  direction  somewhat  westerly  of  south,  and  within  the  metro- 
politan district  lie  but  a  few  feet  above  sea  level. 

Small  Estuaries.  The  shores  of  Long  Island.  New  Jersey,  The  Bronx  and  the  main 
land  to  the  east  of  The  Bronx  are  deeply  indented  by  bays  and  small  estuaries,  such 


WATERS    OF    THE    DISTRICT 


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54  SUMMARY  OF  INVESTIGATIONS 

as  Xewtown  creek,  Flushing  creek,  the  Rahway  river  and  Eastchester  river.  Some  of 
these  streams  have  been  canalized,  as  Gowanus,  for  example. 

Depths  of  Waters,  In  the  Narrows,  where  the  Upper  bay  joins  the  Lower  bar, 
I  lie  depth  of  the  main  channel  is  in  places  as  great  as  120  feet;  in  the  Hudson  the 
channel  varies  from  00  to  75  feet  in  depth  far  up  the  river.  The  main  channel,  though 
broad,  is  fairly  well  defined  through  the  Upper  bay,  the  western  edge  being  prac- 
tically a  continuation  of  the  river  bank  between  the  piers  of  the  Central  Railroad 
of  New  Jersey  in  Jersey  City  and  Tompkinsville  on  Staten  Island.  The  flats  to  the 
west  of  this  channel,  which  are  extensive  in  area,  are  as  a  rule  submerged  less  than 
12  feet  below  low  water.  The  width  of  the  main  channel  through  the  Upper  bay  is 
fixed  in  a  general  way  by  a  line  approximately  parallel  to  the  western  limit  starting 
from  the  western  end  of  Governors  Island  and  extending  to  the  east  side  of  the 
Narrows. 

The  East  river  is  generally  less  than  60  feet  deep,  but  in  places,  particularly  at 
Hell  Gate,  some  parts  of  the  narrow  channels  are  150  feet  in  depth.  In  the  Harlem 
river  and  Spuyten  Duyvil  creek  the  water  is  but  12  to  20  feet  in  depth. 

Newark  bay  has  a  depth  of  12  feet,  or  less,  excepting  at  the  outlet  connecting  with 
Kill  A'aii  Kull,  where  the  water  is  25  to  30  feet  deep,  as  is  also  the  Kill  van  Kull. 
The  Arthur  Kill  is  generally  shallow. 

Areas  of  Water  Surfaces.  Of  the  700  square  miles  included  within  the  bound- 
aries of  the  metropolitan  district,  the  water  surfaces  cover  an  area  of  180  square  miles, 
or  26  per  cent.  The  principal  areas  are: 

Lower  bay  and  Atlantic  ocean 83.00  square  miles 

Upper  bay 20.74  square  miles 

Jamaica  bay 19.27  square  miles 

East  river 14.80  square  miles 

Hudson  river 14.50  square  miles 

Long  Island  Sound 12.80  square  miles 

Newark  bay 8.35  square  miles 

Arthur  Kill 4 .93  gquape  miies 

Kill  van  Kull 1.12  square  miles 

Harlem  river 49  S(luare  miles 


180.00 


DISTINCTIVE  TOPOGRAPHICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

Where  the  Hudson  river  enters  the  metropolitan  district  it  is  flanked  on  the  west 
side  by  the  Palisades  which  reach  at  the  northern  limit  of  the  district  a  height  of  over 
400  feet  above  the  river.  The  height  of  these  cliffs  gradually  decreases  to  about  200 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   CHARACTERISTICS  55 

feet  opposite  Forty-second  street,  Manhattan,  from   which   point  it  gradually  dimin- 
ishes to  a  few  feet  above  sea  level  at  Jersey  City. 

In  the  Borough  of  Manhattan  the  most  extensive  heights  extend  from  Riverside 
Park  to  Tubby  Hook  just  below  the  place  where  the  Harlem  river  joins  the  Hudson. 
These  heights  extend  to  the  southwest  with  a  gradually  reducing  elevation ;  the  back- 
bone of  Manhattan  is  practically  along  the  line  of  Broadway. 

The  district  lying  to  the  north  of  the  Harlem,  OH  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson  in- 
cluding The  Bronx  is  of  a  rolling  nature  reaching  to  heights  of  a  little  over  300  feet 
above  sea  level.  The  balance  of  the  metropolitan  district  in  The  Bronx  is  character- 
ized by  four  nearly  parallel  valleys  which  extend  north  and  south.  Tibbetts  brook  lies 
in  the  valley  nearest  to  and  one  and  a  half  miles  east  of  the  Hudson;  it  empties  into 
Spuyteii  Duyvil  creek.  The  Bronx  river  lies  in  the  next  valley,  about  three  miles  cast 
of  the  Hudson,  and  empties  into  the  East  river  between  Hunts  Point  and  Classou 
Point.  Hutchinson  creek  lies  in  a  valley  five  miles  east  of  the  Hudson  river  passing  be- 
tween Mt.  Vernoii  and  New  Rochelle  and  emptying  into  Eastchester  bay  and  Long 
Island  Sound;  Sheldrake  river  emptying  into  Long  Island  Sound  near  Larchmont,  oc- 
cupie.s  the  fourth  valley.  The  ridges  between  these  valleys  rise  gradually  from  Long 
Island  Sound  to  an  elevation  of  about  300  feet  in  the  region  of  Scarsdale  and  White 
Plains. 

In  Brooklyn  and  Queens  Boroughs  the  ridge  of  the  terminal  moraine  reaches  an 
elevation  of  about  ISO  feet  above  sea  level  and  follows  a  line  stretching  from  Bay  Ridge 
through  Ridgewood  and  Richmond  Hill  to  a  point  about  one-half  a  mile  uortli  of 
Jamaica.  The  southerly  or  southeasterly  face  of  this  moraine  is  steep,  the  elevations 
at  its  fool,  a  distance  of  one-half  mile  or  so  from  the  ridge  crest  being  less  than  100 
feet  above  sea  level.  From  the  southerly  foot  of  the  ridge  the  ground  slopes  gently 
down  to  tide  level  at  Jamaica  bay,  Sheepshead  bay  aud  Gravesend  bay.  To  the  north  of 
the  ridge  the  ground,  as  a  rule,  slopes  gradually  and  uniformly  toward  the  northwest 
to  East  river  and  Long  Island  Sound. 

In  the  center  of  the  Borough  of  Richmond  there  are  many  points  that  reach  a 
height  of  300  feet  above  sea  level.  From  these  the  ground  slopes  regularly  toward  the 
marshes  and  tidewater  ou  the  west  and  north  and  abruptly  down  to  sea  level  on  the 
east  side. 

In  the  New  Jersey  territory  the  most  prominent  topographical  feature,  outside  of 
the  Palisades  and  the  Bergen  Hills,  is  First  Watt-hung  Mountain,  -which,  back  of 
Montclair,  reaches  a  height  of  about  650  feet.  It  is  broken  through  by  a  pass  at 
Great  Notch  and  also  by  the  valley  in  which  the  Passaic  river  swings  to  the  east 
around  the  city  of  Paterson.  Between  Watchung  Mountain  and  the  Bergen  Hills  the 


56  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

country  is  comparatively  Hat,  seldom  rising  to  a  greater  height  than  200  feet  and  lying 
generally  at  an  elevation  of  not  over  100  feet  above  sea  level  between  the  edge  of  the 
salt  marshes  and  the  mountains  to  the  west. 

The  City  of  New  York  and  the  other  cities  along  the  tidal  waters  in  the  metro- 
politan district  form  the  greatest  commercial  center  in  the  United  States.  In  1900  this 
district  had  about  46  per  cent,  of  the  import  and  export  trade  of  the  nation.  The  cities 
on  the  lower  Hudson  are  connected  with  distant  cities  to  the  north,  south,  east  and 
west  by  trunk  lines  of  railroads  of  which  the  largest  number  terminate  on  the  New 
Jersey  side  of  the  Hudson.  Within  a  short  time,  however,  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
tunnels  extending  across  the  Hudson  from  their  New  Jersey  terminal  to  New  York  and 
thence  under  the  East  river  to  Long  Island  will  be  in  operation.  In  addition  to  this 
ocean  and  railway  traffic  the  Hudson  river  has  tide  water  connection  to  Albany  and 
Troy  and  a  prospective  connection  thence  by  means  of  the  barge  canal  with  the  Great 
Lakes  for  boats  of  considerable  tonnage. 


POPULATION 

Within  the  confines  of  the  district,  and  on  lauds  draining  to  the  contiguous  waters, 
resides  a  population  which,  in  1905,  reached  5,332,186.'  The  principal  centers  of  settle- 
ment were  concentrated  around  New  York  harbor  and  Newark  bay.  The  New  York 
State  part,  with  a  population  in  1905  of  4,128,799,  includes  the  whole  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  together  with  additional  territory  lying  north  of  the  Bronx  and  stretch- 
ing out  along  Long  Island  Sound  beyond  New  Kochelle  and  embracing  the  valley  of  the 
Bronx  and  the  city  of  Yonkers.  The  New  Jersey  part,  with  a  population  in  1905 
of  1,203,389,  comprises  the  lower  portions  of  the  valleys  of  the  Hackensack,  Passaic 
and  Railway  rivers,  together  with  the  territory  tributary  to  the  Hudson  river  from 
the  west  'below  Mt.  St.  Vincent.  It  includes,  at  the  northern  limit  of  the  metropolitan 
district,  the  city  of  Paterson  in  the  Passaic  valley  and  Hackensack  and  Euglewood  in 
the  Hackensack  valley. 

Within  the  limits  of  the  district  are  represented  practically  all  types  of  industry, 
manufacture,  commerce  and  occupation  prevailing  in  this  latitude,  as  well  as  resi- 
dential sections  of  all  classes,  including  tenement  districts,  cheap,  moderate  and  high 
class  residential  sections,  suburban  villages  and  spacious  estates.  The  population  is 
cosmopolitan,  there  being  large  districts  where  different  nationalities  congregate  and 
follow  the  customs  of  their  native  lands.  Nearly  every  known  language  is  represented 
by  colonies  sometimes  of  considerable  size,  and  the  habits  of  their  denizens  arc  as  vari- 
ous as  the  different  nationalities  represented. 


POPULATION  57 

The  relative  density  of  population  of  the  different  sections  varies  from  less  than 
150  persons  per  square  mile  in  rural  districts  to  more  than  200,000  per  square  mile 
in  the  densely  settled  sections  of  the  east  side  of  Manhattan.  Averages  for  the  differ- 
ent portions  follow : 

RELATIVE  DENSITY  OF  POPULATION  IN  TUB  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 

Borough  of  Manhattan 90,000  per  square  mile 

Borough  of  Brooklyn 19,300  per  square  mile 

Borough  of  Bronx    5,300  per  square  mile 

Borough  of  Richmond  1,400  per  square  mile 

Borough  of  Queens 1,230  per  square  mile 

RELATIVE  DENSITY  OF  POPULATION  IN  NEW  JERSEY 

Iii  the  Passaic  A^alley  5,800  persons  per  square  mile 

In  the  Joint  outlet  sewer  district 1,700  persons  per  square  mile 

Iii  the  Rahway  river  territory 253  persons  per  square  mile 

PRINCIPAL  INDUSTRIES 

In  New  York  the  southerly  third  of  Manhattan  is,  with  the  exception  of  a  portion 
of  the  tenement  district  on  the  east  side,  given  up  to  business  and  commercial  pur- 
suits. Above  Thirty-fourth  street,  from  the  Hudson  river  to  about  Third  avenue  and 
extending  nearly  to  the  Harlem  river  the  territory  is  essentially  residential.  The 
principal  manufacturing  district  is  on  the  east  side  of  Manhattan  bordering  along 
the  East  and  Harlem  rivers. 

Of  the  30  miles  of  waterfront  of  Manhattan  at  least  17  miles,  comprising  the 
whole  of  that  along  the  East  river,  a  portion  of  that  along  the  Harlem  river,  and  of 
that  of  the  Hudson  river  as  far  up  as  Eightieth  street,  is  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
navigation  and  freight. 

The  lower  end  of  Manhattan,  particularly  the  financial  district,  has  during  the 
day  a  very  large,  and  during  the  night  a  small  population,  owing  to  the  establish- 
ment there  in  recent  years  of  many  tall  office  buildings. 

In  Brooklyn  the  manufacturing  and  maritime  business  is  largely  confined  to  the 
waterfront  on  the  Upper  bay  and  East  river  between  the  Erie  basin  on  the  south  and 
Newtown  creek  on  the  north.  The  district  devoted  exclusively  to  business  is 
small  as  compared  with  that  of  Manhattan,  the  residential  section,  on  the  other  hand, 
being  very  much  greater  in  area  than  that  of  Manhattan;  Brooklyn  is  essentially  a 
city  of  homes,  and  with  the  improvement  of  rapid  transit  facilities  in  recent  years  has 
extended  almost  to  the  sea  by  the  absorption  of  a  large  portion  of  the  territory  south 


58  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

of  Prospect  Park,  which  only  a  few  years  ago  was  extensively  devoted  to  small  farm- 
iug  aiid  truck  gardeiiiug. 

The  Bronx,  like  Brooklyn,  is  essentially  a  residence  section ;  its  manufacturing  and 
maritime  interests  are  centered  near  the  confluence  of  the  Harlem  and  East  rivers. 

In  the  Borough  of  Queens,  outside  of  the  manufacturing  enterprises  at  Long 
Island  City,  Raveuswood,  Astoria  and  Steiuway,  the  settlement  is  largely  commer- 
cial and  residential,  yet  there  is  still  a  considerable  area  devoted  to  agriculture. 

Ill  the  Borough  of  Richmond  the  manufacturing  and  maritime  interests  are  cen- 
tered along  the  waterfront  at  the  northern  end  of  the  borough,  the  remainder  of  the 
territory  being  devoted  to  residential  and  agricultural  purposes. 

Of  the  interests  in  the  New  Jersey  district  those  of  Paterson,  Passaic,  Newark, 
Jersey  City,  Hoboken  and  Bayonne  are  largely  manufacturing:  the  balance  of  the  New 
Jersey  territory  is  occupied  by  residences  and  small  farms. 

The  chief  industries  of  the  metropolitan  district  are  manufacturing,  commercial 
and  agricultural,  the  agricultural  interests  being  largely  confined  to  the  raising  of 
garden  truck.  Among  the  leading  articles  of  manufacture  in  The  City  of  New  York 
are:  clothing,  $228,008,835;  refined  sugar,  f 88,598,113;  books  and  periodicals,  $77,882,- 
237;  foundry  products,  $11,089,574,  and  manufactured  tobacco,  $37,998,201.  This 
latter  figure  exceeds  the  bread  and  bakery  products  which  amounted  to  $32,239,307. 
These  statistics  are  for  the  year  1900.  In  the  New  Jersey  district  Paterson  is  the  lead- 
ing silk  manufacturing  city  in  the  United  States,  the  value  of  the  product  in  1900  being 
$26,000,000.  Bayonue  is  a  center  for  petroleum  refining,  the  value  of  the  product  in 
1900  being  $28,861,000.  At  Newark  the  principal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of 
jewelry  and  leather  goods,  while  at  Passaic  is  situated  one  of  the  largest  woolen  mills  in 

the  world. 

GKADUAL  AND  INCREASING  POLLUTION  OF  THE  HARUOU 

The  growth  of  this  enormous  population,  with  its  manufactories,  markets  and  in- 
dustries along  the  borders  of  the  harbor,  has  gradually  resulted  in  polluting  the  har- 
bor water  sufficiently  to  attract  public  notice. 

The  situation  is  not  unique  nor  exceptional.  Large  centers  of  population  in 
other  parts  of  the  world  have  had  similar  histories,  and  many  have  been  forced 
to  find  remedies.  London  has  her  main  drainage  works;  Chicago  has  diverted 
her  sewage  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Mississippi  river  through  an  artificial 
channel  of  size  comparable  with  a  ship  canal;  Marseilles  takes  her  sewage  to  the  sea 
through  a  large  tunnel ;  the  City  of  Mexico  has  extensive  works  to  conduct  her  sewage 
and  drainage  away  from  centers  of  population ;  Boston  has  her  metropolitan  main 
drainage  works  to  abate  nuisances  in  her  harbor  and  inland  waters;  Baltimore  is 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  59 

building  extensive  works  for  sewage  purification;  and  Hamburg,  Glasgow,  Dublin  and 
Belfast  have  elaborate  systems  to  secure  the  satisfactory  disposal  of  their  sewage. 
Numerous  other  cities  in  both  hemispheres  have  undergone  the  experience  which  the 
cities  around  New  York  harbor  are  now  facing. 

Owing  to  the  difference  in  the  sizes  of  the  various  populous  communities  in  the 
New  York  district  and  to  the  nature  and  volume  of  flow  of  the  different  water  courses 
receiving  their  wastes  the  extent  to  which  the  waters  are  polluted  varies  in  degree 
with  each  locality. 

Some  of  the  waters,  as  for  instance  the  Passaic  river  in  New  Jersey,  Newtown 
creek  and  Gowanus  canal  in  Brooklyn,  as  well  as  the  Harlem  river  and  parts  of  the 
East  river  are  now  so  badly  polluted  as  to  constitute  public  nuisances  against  which 
a  popular  outcry  lias  been  directed  for  a  long  time. 

Some  sections  of  this  district  not  immediately  centered  on  the  tidal  waters  have 
taken  joint  action  to  improve  the  conditions.  These  sections  have  been  the  first  to 
see  the  necessity  for  action  owing  to  the  relatively  intense  pollution  of  their 
small  local  water  courses,  and  have  come  to  the  belief  that  joint  action  of  the  several 
communities  suffering  from  each  other's  putrescent  wastes  would  be  more  effectual 
than  single-handed  efforts  by  each.  The  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  and 
the  Bronx  Valley  Sewerage  Commission,  and  the  Commission  for  the  Joint  Outlet  at 
Bayway,  are  the  outgrowth  of  such  conditions  in  their  respective  territories. 

Other  localities,  such  as  exist  on  Long  Island  and  the  Bronx,  have  had  to  solve 
their  difficulties.  Among  these  are  Jamaica,  Far  Rockaway,  Elmhurst,  Coney  Island, 
Sheepshead  Bay,  East  New  York,  New  Rochelle,  Mt.  Vernon  and  White  Plains.  These 
places  have  established  local  plants  for  dealing  with  their  sewage.  Still  others,  as 
for  example  East  Orange  and  Summit,  have  small  local  and  antiquated  disposal 
plants  which  have  been  abandoned  to  join  with  other  communities  for  simpler  and 
more  satisfactory  means  of  removing  the  sources  of  trouble. 

The  more  important  communities  which  lie  about  the  larger  bodies  of  water,  such 
as  the  five  boroughs  of  New  York,  Newark  and  Jersey  City,  have  heretofore  given  lit- 
tle thought  to  the  question  of  the  ultimate  disposal  of  their  sewage  except  in  the  man- 
ner practiced  since  the  earliest  times;  that  of  dumping  it  into  the  harbors  and  rivers. 
The  larger  communities,  however,  are  now  approaching  the  time  when  their  local 
waters  are  becoming  overpolluted  just  as  the  smaller  districts  above  mentioned 
reached  this  situation  some  years  ago. 

For  a  more  comprehensive  statement  of  the  sewerage  works  of  the  municipalities 
in  the  district  and  their  relation  to  the  harbor  Avaters  reference  should  be  made  to  the 
descriptions  of  these  works  in  Chapter  V,  Part  III,  of  this  report. 


CO  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

SECTION  II 
FEASIBLE  METHODS  OF  DISPOSING    OF    SEWAGE 

The  act  under  which  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  was  appointed  asks 
what  methods  of  collecting  and  disposing  of  the  sewage  and  other  wastes  Avhicli  pol- 
lute or  may  eventually  pollute  the  waters  contemplated  in  this  act  are  most  worthy 
of  consideration. 

The  first  necessity  is  for  better  sewerage  and  better  methods  of  sewage  disposal 
than  exist  at  the  present  time.  As  far  as  practicable,  the  sewers  should  be  so  built 
as  to  permit  of  continuous  and  uninterrupted  flow  and  not  be,  as  too  frequently  hap- 
pens now,  tide-locked  and  flooded  with  harbor  water  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
time. 

Collection  Systems.  The  sewage  should  be  collected  by  sewerage  sys- 
tems which  will  promptly  remove,  without  stagnation  or  interruption,  the 
wastes  from  their  points  of  origin  to  suitable  points  for  final  disposition. 
The  points  for  disposition  should  be  as  numerous,  and  be  located  in  as 
many  parts  of  the  metropolitan  district  as  efficiency,  convenience  and  econ- 
omy require.  The  requirements  to  be  met  in  the  various  parts  of  the  metropoli- 
tan district  differ  materially.  The  method  of  disposal  for  each  situation  should  be 
carefully  adapted  to  the  circumstances  surrounding  that  situation.  The  method  need 
not,  and  should  not,  be  the  same  in  all  cases. 

Disposal  Through  Dilution.  Much  of  the  sewage  which  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances would  flow  into  the  harbor  should  be  kept  out  of  it,  and  the  sewage  which  it 
is  not  feasible  to  dispose  of  otherwise  must  be  emptied  into  it  in  such  condition  and 
under  such  circumstances  as  will  provide  satisfactory  assimilation  with  the  harbor 
water  and  the  best  chance  for  seaward  carriage. 

Methods  of  Partial  Purification.  Among  the  practical  methods  which  are  available 
for  removing  impurities  from  sewage  so  that  the  residue  can  be  discharged  into  the 
harbor  waters  without  injury  to  the  public  welfare,  are  grit  chambers,  settling  basins, 
precipitation  tanks,  screens  and  filters. 

tint  Chambers.  Grit  chambers  are  necessary  as  a  preliminary  to  pumping  sewage 
and  are  usually  employed  as  a  first  step  in  purifying  sewage  by  any  process.  Their  func- 
tion is  to  remove  sand  and  other  heavy  solid  particles  which  easily  and  quickly  settle 
when,  for  some  reason,  the  velocity  of  the  sewage  current  is  checked.  Sewage  is 
usually  passed  rapidly  through  grit  chambers. 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   METHODS  (il 

Settling  Basins.  Settling  basins  are  larger  than  grit  chambers.  Their  function 
is  to  permit  solids  less  heavy  than  grit  to  subside  while  the  sewage  passes  through. 
Sewage  is  usually  allowed  to  take  several  hours  in  passing  through  a  settling  basin. 

Precipitating  Tanks.  A  precipitating  tank  is  essentially  a  settling  tank  in  which 
the  deposit  of  solids  is  accelerated  by  the  use  of  chemicals. 

Screens.  Screens  are  used  to  remove  floating  solid  matters  from  sewage.  They 
are  of  great  diversity  of  form,  but  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes,  coarse 
and  fine,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  openings.  Coarse  screens,  with  openings  of 
half  an  inch,  or  so,  are  used  to  intercept  large  particles  such  as  fragments  of  gar- 
bage, rags,  sticks  and  cloth.  Like  grit  chambers,  they  are  usually  employed  to  pro- 
tect pump  valves  when  sewage  is  pumped.  Fine  screens  sometimes  have  openings  of 
less  than  one-tenth  inch.  Screens  are  often  of  ingenious  design  and  are  capable  of 
materially  improving  sewage. 

Filters.  Filters  for  sewage  are  of  various  kinds.  They  are  capable  of  remov- 
ing solids  from  sewage,  but  they  are  most  useful  and  most  often  used  to  oxidize  dis- 
solved organic  matters  where  a  high  degree  of  purification  is  demanded. 

Irrigation.  Under  some  circumstances  sewage  can  be  utilized  for  the  cultivation 
of  crops,  but  the  land  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  is  not  generally  suitable  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  expense  of  pumping  to  distant  points  would  be  very  large. 

Sea  Disposal.  Owing  to  engineering  difficulties  and  the  great  cost  involved  the 
collection  to  a  central  station  and  the  dumping  of  all  the  sewage  of  the  metropolitan 
district  at  sea  would  be  impracticable. 

Slight  Man  it  rial  Value  of  Sewage.  Contrary  to  general  belief,  the  mammal  in- 
gredients of  sewage  cannot  be  recovered  so  as  materially  to  reduce  the  expense  of 
handling  it.  Theoretically  the  manurial  value  of  sewage  amounts  to  $1  to  fl.25  per 
capita  per  year,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  city  in  the  world  which  is  handling  its  sew- 
age at  a  profit.  It  is  true  that  some  large  cities,  notably  Paris  and  Berlin,  utilize  their 
sewage  by  irrigating  farm  land,  but  this  requires  large  areas  of  territory  and  is  prac- 
ticable only  where  the  soil  is  suitable,  the  land  cheap,  the  sewage  useful  for  the  water 
which  it  contains,  and  where  a  ready  market  for  the  irrigated  crops  exists.  The  conditions 
about  The  City  of  New  York  are  unsuited  for  the  profitable  exploitation  of  such  a 
project.  A  part  of  the  manurial  ingredients  of  sewage  can  be  extracted  by  passing 
the  sewage  through  tanks  in  which  the  solid  particles  will  settle  out  with  or  without 
the  aid  of  chemicals.  But  this  process  requires  the  handling  of  large  volumes  of  a 
bulky  sludge,  containing  90  to  95  per  cent,  of  water.  This  sludge  cannot  be  utilized 
without  drying  or  pressing,  and  these  procedures  are  expensive.  If  the  present  quan- 
tity of  sewage  produced  by  New  York  was  to  be  treated  by  precipitation  with  chem- 


02  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

icals  it  is  estimated  that  about  14,000  tons  of  sludge  would  be  produced  each  day. 
The  cost  of  disposing  of  this  sludge  would  be  large,  yet  the  technical  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  handling  it  would  not  be  insurmountable;  it  could  be  shipped  to  sea,  for 
instance. 

Bacterial  Processes.  Various  so-called  bacterial  processes  of  purifying  sewage  have 
been  developed  in  the  last  ten  years.  Their  object  is  to  dispose  of  the  impurities  in  a 
harmless  and  inoffensive  manner  and  with  the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  money. 
Some  of  these  bacterial  processes  are  of  much  scientific  and  practical  interest.  They 
are  particularly  useful  where  a  high  degree  of  purification  is  desired. 

Fine  Screening.  If  sewage  is  screened  and  passed  through  suitably  constructed 
settling  tanks,  the  visible  particles  may  nearly  all  be  removed.  Screens  have  been 
brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  in  Europe,  where  they  have  been  employed  to 
remove  particles  as  small  as  one-twenty-fifth  of  an  inch. 

Grease  Removal.  Grease  may  be  removed  in  connection  with  screening.  Screen- 
ing, settling  and  the  removing  of  grease  are  extensively  practiced  in  Germany  as  a 
suitable  procedure  preliminary  to  discharging  sewage  into  rivers  which  are  not  used 
for  drinking  purposes  and  where  the  proportion  of  sewage  to  river  water  is  small. 
The  cost  of  this  treatment  is  not  great  as  compared  with  the  cost  of  the  more  refined 
bacterial  processes. 

Land  Required.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  all  methods  for  the  purification  of 
sewage  require  works  which  must  occupy  land,  and  that  land  is  expensive  in  the  met- 
ropolitan district.  Grit  removing,  screening,  settling  and  precipitating  take  less  land 
than  other  processes.  Sewage  farming  takes  the  most  land. 

Works  for  purifying  sewage  are  becoming  increasingly  common  for  inland  cities, 
and  there  are  many  cities  in  Europe  and  America  which  have  found  it  necessary  to 
protect  their  harbors  in  this  way  against  pollution. 

Protection  of  Harbors  Abroad.  London  partly  purifies  its  sewage  with  chemicals 
and  ships  to  sea  7,500  tons  of  resultant  sludge  per  day.  The  city  of  Glasgow  treats 
its  sewage  in  the  same  way  as  does  London.  Dublin,  Belfast,  Hamburg,  Marseilles 
and  Amsterdam  all  protect  their  harbors  by  public  works  which  have  cost  large  sums 
of  money. 

Harbor  Protection  in  the  United  States.  In  the  United  States  the  city  of  Bos- 
ton and  many  municipalities  in  its  vicinity  have  built  sewerage  systems  which  carry 
their  sewage  far  out  into  the  harbor.  The  city  of  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  purifies 

its  sewage  after  the  London  principle.    Baltimore,  the  latest  large  American  seaport 

• 
to  devise  a  comprehensive  sewerage  system,  has  adopted  a  plan  of  sewage  purification 

including  sedimentation  and  filtration. 


FEASIBILITY  OF  CONSERVATION  63 

New  York  is  the  largest  seaport  which  lias  no  definite  plan  or  policy  with  respect 
to  sewage  disposal. 

Extent  of  Existing  Purification.  Works.  Of  the  26  cities  of  Europe  and  America  which 
have  populations  of  over  500,000  about  one-half  purify  their  sewage  or  follow  some 
other  carefully  devised  plan  for  disposing  of  it.  Of  the  nine  cities  of  over  1,000,000 
inhabitants  three  purify  their  sewerage,  one  carries  it  away  a  long  distance  by  an 
especially  built  canal,  and  the  remainder  discharge  it  into  great  bodies  of  water  with- 
out any  plan  or  concern  as  to  its  ultimate  fate.  Statistics  are  not  available  to  show 
how  large  is  the  aggregate  sum  of  money  invested  in  all  the  sewage  disposal  plants 
which  exist  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  but  some  idea  of  the  number  and  extent  of 
these  undertakings  can  be  had  from  the  fact  that  works  are  now  in  operation  which 
purify  the  sewage  of  not  less  than  18,000,000  people. 

SECTION  III 

FEASIBILITY  OF  ADOPTING  A  GENERAL  PLAN  FOR  PROTECTING  THE 
HARBOR  WATERS  FROM  POLLUTION 

The  second  paragraph  of  the  Act  which  provided  for  the  creation  of  the  Metro- 
politan Sewerage  Commission  specifies,  as  one  of  the  duties  of  this  Commission,  the 
consideration  and  investigation  of  the  most  effective  and  feasible  means  of  perma- 
nently improving  and  protecting  the  purity  of  the  waters  of  New  York  bay  and 
neighboring  waters,  giving  attention  particularly  to  the  desirability  and  feasibility  of 
The  City  of  New  York  and  the  municipalities  in  its  vicinity  agreeing  upon  a  general 
plan  or  policy  of  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  which  will  protect  the  waters  of  New 
York  bay  and  vicinity  against  unnecessary  and  injurious  pollution  by  sewage  and  other 
wastes. 

Desirability  of  Interstate  Agreement.  A  careful  consideration  of  the  sewage  dis- 
posal problem  of  the  metropolitan  district  leads  to  the  opinion  that  the  sewage  of 
The  City  of  New  York  and  the  municipalities  in  its  vicinity  should,  for  a  perfect  so- 
lution of  the  problem,  be  dealt  with  in  accordance  with  a  general  policy  which  should 
be  made  the  subject  of  agreement  between  the  two  States  of  New  York  and  New 
Jersey. 

The  middle  of  the  harbor  is  the  dividing  line  between  the  States  of  New  York 
and  New  Jersey,  and  unless  an  agreement  can  be  entered  into  the  waters  in  their  en- 
tirety can  not  be  protected  as  effectively  as  would  be  desirable,  there  being  no  single 
interested  authority  having  jurisdiction  over  its  sanitary  condition. 

In  the  absence  of  control  by  a  central  body  or  by  either  State,  the  cities  of  the 


64  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

two  States  may  be  expected  to  go  on  as  now,  each  adding  to  the  defilement  to  the 
mutual  injury  of  the  other  until  drastic  measures  are  necessary  to  relieve  the  waters 
of  their  offensive  condition. 

Future  Conditions.  The  present  condition  of  the  harbor  and  the  rapidly  increas- 
ing quantities  of  sewage  which  are  being  discharged  into  it  make  it  evident  that  the 
time  is  approaching  when  the  two  States  will  be  compelled  to  place  the  protection  of 
the  harbor  against  sewage  in  the  hands  of  a  single  authority  as  they  have  been  forced 
to  arrange  for  the  management  of  quarantine  by  New  York  State  and  the  disposal  of 
solid  refuse  by  the  United  States  Government. 

Quarantine  Regulations  Under  Interstate  Agreement.  In  early  times  questions  of 
quarantine  were  continually  arising  between  the  States  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
each  State  asserting  its  sovereignty  over  its  part  of  the  waters,  to  mutual  inconven- 
ience and  injury  of  public  health  and  welfare.  This  led  the  two  States  in  1832  to 
form  an  agreement  whereby  the  State  of  New  York  took  charge  of  the  quarantine  and 
police  regulation  of  the  harbor  to  the  New  Jersey  shores. 

Dumping  of  Garbage  Into  Harbor  Stopped.  Until  recent  years,  New  York  harbor 
was  considered  to  be  a  suitable  place  for  the  dumping  of  all  the  garbage  and  other 
refuse  which  was  produced  by  the  cities  and  towns  in  its  vicinity.  In  the  course  of 
time  the  dumping  of  solid  matters  into  the  harbor  had  to  be  given  up  and  a  form  of 
police  jurisdiction  was  established  by.  the  United  States  Government  to  keep 
solid  refuse  out  of  these  waters.  The  justification  of  the  general  government  for  tak- 
ing control  of  this  matter  lay  in  the  belief  that  injury  was  being  done  to  the  navigable 
channels. 

Community  of  Interests  Should  Secure  Unity  of  Action.  The  community  of  inter- 
ests which  exists  among  the  people  of  the  States  should  lead  to  a  common  effort  to 
protect  the  harbor  against  unnecessary  and  injurious  defilement.  It  will  be  regret- 
table and  expensive,  not  to  say  dangerous,  if  the  existence  of  State  boundary  lines  is 
to  prevent  the  centralization  of  sanitary  authority  where  public  health  is  concerned. 

Plan  for  Conservancy  by  New  York  in  the  Absence  of  a  General  Plan  for 
the  Whole  District.  Until  such  time  as  a  general  plan  of  conservancy  can  be  agreed 
upon  between  New  York  and  New  Jersey  The  City  of  New  York  should,  for  her  own 
protection,  and  in  the  interests  of  economy  and  public  health,  proceed  to  formulate  a 
general  plan  to  which  future  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  works  in  the  New  York 
territory  should  be  adapted.  There  is  much  to  be  done  to  improve  conditions  which 
are  local  in  New  York,  to  provide  for  a  proper  development  and  extension  of  the  ex- 
isting sewerage  systems  and  to  protect  and  improve  those  parts  of  the  harbor  which 
lie  completely  within  the  limits  of  New  York  State. 


'"" 

rm 
UNIVERSITY 


ADMINISTRATIVE  CONTROL  65 


SECTION  IV 

FEASIBLE  METHODS  OF  ADMINISTRATIVE  CONTROL  FOR  A  METROPOLI- 
TAN SEWERAGE  DISTRICT 

The  legislative  Acts  which  provided  for  the  creation  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
Commission  of  New  York  finally  ask  what  would  be  the  best  system  of  administrative  con- 
trol for  the  inception,  execution  and  operation  of  a  plan  for  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal 
of  the  metropolitan  sewerage  district ;  whether  by  the  action  of  already  existing  depart- 
ments and  provisions  of  government;  by  the  establishment  of  separate  and  distinct 
sewerage  districts  and  permanent  commissions  in  each  State;  by  the  creation  of  one 
interstate  metropolitan  district  and  commission  to  be  established  by  agreement  between 
the  two  States,  this  agreement,  if  necessary,  to  be  ratified  by  Congress;  or  whether  by 
other  means. 

The  only  governmental  authority  which  is  common  to  the  two  States  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  is  the  United  States  Government,  and  this  has  not  attempted 
to  specify  the  method  or  supervise  the  construction  of  works  for  the  discharge  of 
sewage  into  State  or  interstate  waters. 

Existing  departments  of  government  in  the  States  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
would  be  prevented  from  uniting  to  devise  and  execute  a  plan  of  sewerage  and  sewage 
disposal  for  the  metropolitan  district,  for  the  reason  that  in  New  York  such  questions 
are  left  to  the  State  Department  of  Health  and  that  Department  does  not  attempt  to 
exercise  jurisdiction  within  the  limits  of  The  City  of  New  York. 

Where  questions  affecting  public  comfort  and  well  being  are  so  largely  concerned 
some  other  form  of  jurisdiction  is  more  appropriate  than  that  of  a  public  health  de- 
partment. 

Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal  of  Great  Britain.  The  main  authority 
which  is  responsible  for  the  sanitary  protection  of  the  river  Thames  is  not  a  public 
health  body.  The  Royal  Commissions  on  Sewage  Disposal  of  Great  Britain,  with  one 
exception,  have  not  been  health  boards,  nor  have  the  various  Rivers  Boards  of 
England,  which  are  doing  good  work  for  the  sanitary  protection  of  water  courses. 

The  last  report  of  the  (temporary)  British  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Dis- 
posal recommends  the  creation  of  a  permanent  central  sewage  authority  which  shall 
carry  on  suitable  investigations  and  be  ready  to  give  expert  advice  to  local  authorities 
as  to  methods  for  the  sanitary  disposition  of  sewage  and  act  as  a  court  of  last  resort 


66  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

in  all  matters  of  dispute  concerning  the  disposal  of  sewage  in  the  several  localities 
of  England. 

German  Imperial  Board  of  Health.  In  Germany  the  Imperial  Board  of  Health 
exercises  jurisdiction  over  streams  only  in  so  far  as  health  is  surely  and  directly  con- 
cerned. The  sanitary  improvement  and  protection  of  the  rivers  so  far  as  they  may  be 
maintained  in  a  condition  suitable  for  the  business  and  enjoyment  of  the  public  de- 
volves upon  other  authorities. 

Special  Commissions.  In  America,  where  there  is  no  central  health  authority,  the 
protection  of  the  water  courses  is  left  to  the  care  of  the  individual  States.  Some  States 
require  that  all  plans  for  sewerage,  as  well  as  sewage  purification,  shall  be  passed  upon 
by  the  State  Board  of  Health  before  they  are  carried  out.  American  harbors  are  pro- 
tected, where  any  protection  exists,  chiefly  through  works  constructed  by  sanitary 
authorities  such  as  sewerage  commissions,  which  have  no  jurisdiction  over  other  mat- 
ters of  public  health.  The  need  and  nature  of  such  work  are  often  determined  by  a 
special  board  of  commissioners.  This  has  been  true  of  Boston  and  Baltimore. 

Intercity  Agreements  Impracticable.  The  remaining  form  of  co-operation  which 
remains  to  be  considered  between  existing  forms  or  departments  of  government,  would 
be  one  reached  through  an  agreement  between  the  several  municipalities  concerned. 
When  the  multiplicity  of  places  is  considered  (there  are  189  municipalities  in  the 
metropolitan  district)  the  impracticability  of  forming  and  maintaining  a  cohesive  and 
useful  co-operation  among  them  becomes  manifest. 

Commission  for  New  York  State  Recommended.  The  two  States  can  not  be  ex- 
pected to  co-operate  in  this  work  at  once  but  may  be  expected  to  do  so  later.  There- 
fore a  commission  should  be  created  for  New  York  State,  with  instructions  to  co- 
operate with  New  Jersey,  if  possible,  to  the  end  that  an  adequate  settlement  of  the 
problems  of  sewage  disposal  can  be  secured. 

Duties  of  Proposed  Commission.  This  central  board  should  propose,  but  not  nec- 
essarily build,  such  works  of  main  drainage  as  are  required  to  permanently  improve 
and  protect  the  purity  of  the  water  of  New  York  bay  and  neighboring  waters.  The 
commission  should  not  be  charged  with  the  duty  of  executing  local  sewerage  works  but 
should  have  advisory  authority  over  their  design  at  least  in  so  far  as  they  would 
relate  to  the  general  plan  for  main  drainage.  The  sewers  needed  for  purely  local 
purposes  should  be  designed  by  the  several  municipalities.  The  central  board  should  be 
required  to  examine  and  pass  judgment  upon  all  new  projects  for  sewerage  within  the 
territory  under  their  jurisdiction  when  requested  to  do  so  by  the  local  authorities  hav- 
ing these  projects  in  hand. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  CONTROL  67 

The  commission  should  have  power  to  employ  such  technical  and  other  assistants  as 
would  be  required  for  the  work,  and  fix  their  salaries,  and  should  be  authorized  to  pur- 
chase supplies  and  do  all  other  necessary  things  for  the  execution  of  the  work  for  which 
it  is  created. 

Appointment  of  Commission.  The  commission,  so  far  as  it  represents  the  State  of 
New  York,  should  be  appointed  by  the  Mayor  of  New  York  in  accordance  with  a  special 
Act  of  the  Legislature  and  should  report  to  him. 


CHAPTER  II 
DIGEST    OF    COMMISSION'S    INVESTIGATIONS 

SECTION  I 

BRIEF    SUMMARY    OF    THE    WORK  ACCOMPLISHED   BY   THE 
METROPOLITAN  SEWERAGE  COMMISSION 

Meetings.  The  Commission  has  held  regular  weekly  and  many  special  meetings  at 
which  all  the  Commissioners  have  usually  been  present.  Up  to  April  30,  1910,  the 
Commission,  since  it  was  reconstituted,  has  held  120  meetings,  at  which  all  phases  of 
the  Commission's  investigations  have  been  planned  and  discussed.  Routine  and 
special  reports  from  the  employees  have  been  presented  at  the  meetings  and  all  ex- 
penditures have  been  authorized,  and  bills  audited. 

Collection  of  Data.  The  detailed  work  of  collecting  data  has  been  done  partly  by 
the  members  of  the  Commission  and  partly  by  employees  under  the  immediate  direc- 
tion of  the  president  who  has  acted  as  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Commission  and  as 
the  executive  head  of  the  board. 

Study  Trips.  The  Commissioners  have  made  numerous  trips,  by  land  and  water, 
through  the  metropolitan  district  to  study  the  conditions  attending  the  discharge  of 
sewage  and  obtain  information  concerning  the  topography,  distribution  of  population 
and  other  facts  necessary  to  form  an  intelligent  opinion  as  to  future  requirements  of 
sewerage  and  sewage  disposal. 

A  trip  was  taken  by  the  Commissioners  to  Boston  and  the  sewerage  and  sewage 
disposal  works  of  that  city  and  of  the  metropolitan  district  of  Boston,  including 
about  23  cities  and  towns  were  studied. 

Exhibition.  At  the  request  of  the  Mayor,  an  exhibit  of  the  main  features  of  the 
Commission's  work  was  held  in  connection  with  a  public  exhibit  on  congestion  of 
population  and  town  planning  at  the  Twenty-second  Regiment  Armory  in  May,  1909. 
The  Commission's  exhibit  consisted  of  maps,  charts,  diagrams  and  photographs  pre- 
pared to  show  the  present  conditions  and  consequences  attending  the  discharge  of 
sewage  into  the  harbor  and  the  ways  in  which  other,  both  American  and  foreign, 
cities  have  protected  their  harbors  against  pollution.  The  exhibit  occupied  a  wall 
space  of  560  square  feet  and  was  viewed  by  about  200,000  people. 

Hearing  on  Passaic  Valley  Seicer  Before  Harbor  Line  Board.  At  a  hearing  be- 
fore  the  United  States  Harbor  Line  Board  held  to  collect  information  concerning  the 


70  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

possible  effects  which  the  discharge  of  the  proposed  Passaic  valley  sewer  at  Kobbins 
Keef  might  have  upou  the  depth  of  water  iu  the  navigable  channels  of  the  harbor,  the 
Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission,  at  the  request  of  the  Mayor,  presented  a  brief 
statement  of  its  views  on  the  project. 

The  district  over  which  the  Commissioners'  investigations  have  extended  has 
covered  metropolitan  New  Jersey  as  well  as  metropolitan  New  York.  About  the  same 
extent  of  territory  has  been  included  in  each  State. 

Invitation  to  New  Jersey  to  Co-operate.  Although  the  investigations  have  covered 
conditions  in  New  Jersey,  the  Commission  has  had  no  official  co-operation  from  that 
State.  The  State  of  New  York  by  letters  addressed  by  the  Secretary  of  State  to  the 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  twice  invited  the  State  of  New  Jersey  to  co-operate  in  the 
Metropolitan  Commission's  investigations,  but  without  result.  The  last  invitation  ex- 
tended at  the  request  of  the  Metropolitan  Commission  was  dated  November  12,  1908. 

Co-operation  of  Other  Departments  of  The  City  of  New  York.  Co-operation  by 
the  permanent  departments  of  the  government  of  The  City  of  New  York  has  con- 
tributed materially  to  the  success  of  the  Commission's  work.  The  Commissioner  of 
Docks  set  aside  an  uuusued  space  on  Pier  A  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river,  where 
the  Commission  established  a  laboratory.  The  New  York  Zoological  Society  through 
the  Director  of  the  Aquarium  at  the  Battery  permitted  experiments  to  be  made  from 
time  to  time  in  tanks  of  harbor  water  and  sea  water  on  a  scale  and  under  conditions 
which  it  would  have  been  difficult  to  obtain  elsewhere.  The  Department  of  Health  and 
the  Department  of  Water  Supply,  Gas  and  Electricity  and  the  Board  of  Water  Supply 
of  The  City  of  New  York  furnished  useful  data  of  several  kinds.  The  Bureau  of 
Sewers  of  the  Department  of  Public  Works  for  Manhattan,  as  well  as  the  Bureaus  of 
Sewers  in  the  other  boroughs,  have  given  information  which  has  been  of  material 
help.  The  sewer  authorities  throughout  the  metropolitan  district  have  facilitated  the 
Commission's  studies  of  their  several  sewerage  systems. 

Co-operation  of  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.  Assistance  in  study- 
ing the  tidal  phenomena  of  the  harbor  was  received  from  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey,  as  a  result  of  a  visit  which  members  of  the  Metropolitan  Commis- 
sion made  to  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor  to  request  the  co-operation  of 
the  United  States  Government  in  its  work.  At  the  request  of  this  Commission,  an 
exhaustive  research  and  report  were  made  by  the  officials  of  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Goedetic  Survey  covering  an  examination  of  reports,  documents  and  unpublished  rec- 
ords in  their  official  archives  to  determine  with  the  greatest  practicable  accuracy  the 
quantities  of  water  flowing  in  and  out  of  the  harbor,  the  direction  and  force  of  the  cur- 
rents, and  other  facts. 


WORK  ACCOMPLISHED  71 

Assistance  from  Many  Sources.  A  large  number  of  engineers  in  official  and  pri- 
vate life  in  New  York  and  in  other  cities  contributed  information  which  has  been  of 
value  in  preparing  this  report.  To  all  who  have  helped  in  this  way  full  acknowledg- 
ment is  here  made  of  the  assistance  received  and  the  thanks  of  the  Commission  are  ex- 
tended. 

Investigations.  Investigations  of  the  conditions  of  the  waters  have  been  a  promi- 
nent feature  of  the  Commission's  work.  In  general,  their  object  has  been,  (a)  to  show 
the  extent  to  which  the  waters  were  polluted,  and  (b)  to  study  the  circumstances 
under  which  the  waters  could  be  utilized  in  disposing  of  sewage  in  future  in  case 
further  investigation  showed  that  it  would  be  too  expensive  to  keep  all  sewage  out  of 
the  water. 

Diyc*t  of  Early  Data.  Before  undertaking  new  examinations  of  the  water,  efforts 
were  made  to  obtain  every  analysis  of  consequence  which  had  been  made  of  the  waters  of 
the  harbor  prior  to  the  reorganization  of  the  Commission.  A  careful  review  and 
digest  of  data  concerning  the  quality  of  New  York  harbor  waters  prior  to  January, 
1908,  was  published  by  the  Commission  in  August,  1909.  This  investigation  was  sup- 
plemented by  further  analyses  after  the  need  of  additional  information  became  ap- 
parent. 

Analytical  Work.  The  analytical  work  has  been  done  in  the  Commission's  own 
laboratory  by  assistants  of  recognized  skill  in  this  kind  of  work.  From  time  to  time 
the  services  of  well  known  consulting  experts  have  been  employed  to  advise  with  re- 
spect to  various  phases  of  the  investigations. 

Laboratory.  The  laboratory  has  been  located  on  Pier  A,  which  is  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson  river  near  the  centre  of  the  metropolitan  district,  The  samples 
for  analysis  have  been  collected  by  means  of  boats  chartered  by  the  Commission.  One 
of  these  boats  was  fitted  up  as  a  floating  laboratory  for  analyses  which  it  was  desir- 
able to  make  as  soon  after  collection  as  possible. 

Volume  of  Analytical  Work.  The  Commission  since  its  first  organization  has 
made,  roundly,  4,000  chemical  or  physical  analyses  of  the  water  of  New  York  harbor 
and  2,000  bacteriological  examinations  of  these  waters.  These  figures  include  analyses 
of  deposits  found  upon  the  harbor  bottom.  Of  the  total  number  of  analyses  1,135  have 
been  made  since  March  3,  1909  for  bacteria  in  the  water.  There  have  been  844  deter- 
minations of  the  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  in  the  water  to  measure  the  effects  of 
the  existing  pollution.  Deposits  from  the  harbor  bottom  have  been  analyzed  micro- 
scopically to  the  number  of  806  samples.  In  addition,  continuous  tests  of  the  salinity 
of  the  water  have  been  made  for  the  entire  year  1909  at  all  stations  situated  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  harbor. 


72  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

Special  Investigations.  Beside  the  analytical  work,  a  number  of  special  investi- 
gations have  been  made  bearing  on  (a)  the  present  and  probable  future  sanitary 
condition  of  the  water,  and  (&)  the  capacity  of  the  harbor  for  harmlessly  and  inof- 
fensively absorbing  sewage.  Among  these  investigations,  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned : 

Existing  Sewerage  Works.  Study  of  the  present  sewerage  conditions  in  the  several 
boroughs  of  New  York  and  of  the  other  cities  and  municipalities  within  20  miles  of 
New  York  City  Hall. 

Inspection  of  the  Sewer  System  of  Manhattan.  With  the  co-operation  of  the 
Borough  President  and  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Department  of  Sewers,  the  sewers  of 
Manhattan  were  inspected  by  the  employees  of  this  Commission  to  ascertain  their 
general  condition  and  state  of  repair. 

Sewer  Outlets.  Determination  of  the  location,  size  and  volumes  of  discharge  of 
the  principal  sewer  outlets  in  the  metropolitan  district. 

Street  Refuse  Entering  Harbor.  Estimates  of  the  quantities  of  refuse  which 
enter  the  harbor  from  the  streets  of  the  principal  cities  bordering  upon  the  harbor. 

Population  Estimates.  Estimates  of  future  population  for  every  five  years  until 
1940,  including  a  review  of  estimates  by  other  authorities. 

Future  Sewerage  Needs.  Inspections  of  the  harbor  and  of  the  outlying  districts 
with  respect  to  future  needs  of  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal. 

Pollution  of  Beaches  and  Bathing  Establishments.  Experiments  to  determine  the 
extent  to  which  bathing  places  are  polluted  by  sewage. 

Transportation  of  Sewage  by  Currents.  Experiments  to  determine  the  extent  of 
transportation  of  sewage  by  the  tidal  currents  of  the  harbor. 

Diffusion  and  Digestion.  Experimental  studies  to  show  the  possibilities  of  dif- 
fusing and  dispersing  sewage  matters  through  the  waters  of  the  harbor. 

Tidal  Phenomena.  Theoretical  study  of  the  principal  tidal  phenomena  of  New 
York  harbor  supplementary  to  a  report  by  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey. 

Float  Studies.  Practical  study  of  tidal  phenomena  as  shown  by  the  course  taken 
by  specially  constructed  floats. 

Typhoid  Outbreak.  Investigation  into  the  cause  of  an  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever 
at  Bath  Beach. 

Digestion  of  Sewage  Solids.  Experiments  on  the  digestion  of  sewage  solids  in 
the  harbor  water. 

The  details  of  these  and  other  studies  will  be  found  in  the  various  chapters  of 
Part  III  of  this  Report. 


TIDAL  PHENOMENA  73 

SECTION  II 
FLOW  OF  TIDAL  WATER 

Net  Discharge  Seaward  Through  the  Narrows.  The  volume  of  water  discharged 
sou-ward  through  the  Narrows  in  excess  of  the  volume  which  returns  is  about  15 
per  cent,  of  the  total  movement  in  either  direction.  It  is  1,750  million  cubic  feet 
each  tide  under  usual  conditions,  and  950  million  cubic  feet  under  conditions  un- 
favorable to  a  large  net  outflow. 

Total  Flow  Through  the  Narrows  in  Both  Directions.  During  average  conditions 
the  total  volume  of  water  which  flows  in  either  direction  through  the  Narrows  is 
12,540  million  cubic  feet  on  ebb  tides  and  10,790  million  cubic  feet  on  flood  tides. 
Under  conditions  unfavorable  to  a  large  ebb  outflow  the  quantities  are  6,775  million 
cubic  feet  during  each  ebb  and  5,825  million  cubic  feet  during  each  flood  tide. 

Net  Flotv  Seaward  of  Hudson  and  East  Rivers  and  Kill  van  Kull.  The  average 
net  ebb  flow  from  the  Hudson  at  each  tide  is  1,170  million  cubic  feet.  From  the 
East  river  it  is  450  million  cubic  feet.  From  the  Kill  van  Kull  it  is  78  million  cubic 
feet. 

Velocities  of  Tidal  Flows.  The  tides  run  most  swiftly  in  the  East  river.  The 
strongest  currents  in  the  East  river  attain  a  velocity  of  two  to  four  knots  per  hour. 
The  currents  in  the  Hudson  usually  range  between  two  and  three  knots  per  hour,  and 
the  velocities  at  the  Narrows  usually  range  between  1.5  and  two  knots  per  hour. 
These  rates  represent  the  speed  of  the  currents  after  they  have  attained  practically 
their  full  velocity  and  are  not  averages  made  by  dividing  the  total  movement  of 
water  in  one  direction  by  the  period  of  time  that  the  water  flows  in  that  direction. 
For  about  two-thirds  of  the  time  the  current  is  slacking,  reversing  and  regaining 
its  ordinary  velocity. 

Ranges  of  Tide.  The  rise  and  fall  of  tide  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  harbor. 
At  Governors  Island  in  Upper  New  York  bay  the  mean  is  4.4  feet.  At  Sandy  Hook 
the  usual  range  is  4.7.  At  Throgs  Neck,  7.2. 

Effects  of  Winds  on  Tides.  The  range  in  Upper  New  York  bay  is  not  uncom- 
monly increased  or  diminished  to  the  extent  of  50  per  cent,  by  the  wind. 

Salinity  of  Harbor  Waters.  The  water  of  New  York  harbor  is  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  sea  water  and  land  water  in  constantly  varying  proportions.  The  fol- 
lowing ratios  will  give  an  idea  of  the  composition  as  indicated  by  approximately 
average  figures  covering  one  year's  continuous  observations: 

East  river,  east  end — 20  per  cent,  land  water  and  80  per  cent,  sea  water. 

East  river,  midway  between  ends — 40  per  cent,  land  water. 


SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 


AVERAGE     CONDITIONS 


FLOOD 


cat 


DRY  WEATHER          CONDITIONS 


PROPORTIONS 

OF 
LAND  WATER  AND    SEA  WATER 

AT 
THE    NARROWS 


TIDAL  PHENOMENA  75 

East  river,  south  end — 48  per  cent,  land  water. 

The  Hudson  contains  75  per  cent,  of  land  water  at  Tarrytown  and  40  per  cent, 
of  land  water  at  its  mouth.  Upper  New  York  bay  and  the  Karitau  bay  contain 
about  25  per  cent,  land  water.  At  the  outer  limits  of  New  York  harbor,  that  is,  at 
Ambrose  Light  Vessel,  the  water  usually  contains  about  10  per  cent,  of  land  water 
and  90  per  cent,  sea  water. 

Imperfect  Conditions  for  Assimilation.  The  quantity  of  water  which  flows  in  and 
out  of  New  York  harbor,  although  large,  is  not  a  measure  of  the  capacity  of  the  har- 
bor to  transport  or  assimilate  sewage.  The  idea  of  transportation  involves  the  as- 
sumption that  the  matters  which  are  carried  away  are  not  brought  back  again.  The 
oscillation  of  the  tide  carries  the  sewage  back  and  forth  indefinitely.  The  idea  of  as- 
similation involves  the  assumption  that  the  sewage  becomes  so  mingled  with  the  water 
as  properly  to  be  considered  part  of  it.  Again,  investigation  shows  that  this  condi- 
tion is  not  always  fulfilled. 

The  movement  of  the  tides  produces  a  refreshing  effect  upon  the  harbor  but  this 
benefit  is  restricted  because  (a)  tidal  action  is  usually  least  in  those  places  which 
need  it  most,  (6)  thorough  mixture  of  the  sewage  with  the  water  does  not  always 
occur  promptly,  (c)  the  currents  are  intermittent,  and  not  continuous,  as  are  those 
of  a  river  flowing  in  one  direction,  (d)  the  action  of  the  tidal  currents  carries  some 
sewage  matters  on  the  surface  and  some  toward  shore,  (e)  the  force  and  direction 
of  the  tidal  currents  are  materially  influenced  by  the  wind  (/)  excepting  near  the 
sea  and  sound  entrances  the  same  water  flows  back  and  forth  and  is  not  pure  sea 
water  by  any  means. 

Oscillatory  Movement  of  Harbor  Waters.  Contrary  to  popular  belief,  the  move- 
ment of  river  and  tidal  water  to  sea  does  not  proceed  in  a  regular  and  reliable  man- 
ner. Studies  of  the  course  followed  by  objects  so  constructed  as  to  float  just  below 
the  surface  of  the  harbor  have  shown  that  the  water  oscillates  back  and  forth,  some- 
times to  an  indefinite  extent,  before  escaping  to  sea. 

In  the  more  open  parts  of  the  Hudson  river  and  Upper  and  Lower  New  York 
bays  there  is  a  generally  northward  and  southward  oscillation,  the  southward  move- 
ment being  in  excess. 

The  waters  which  pass  out  of  the  harbor  by  way  of  the  Narrows  go  to  sea,  for 
the  most  part,  by  the  northerly  channels  of  the  Lower  bay. 

The  water  of  Newark  bay  oscillates  between  the  head  of  the  bay  and  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Kill  van  Kull,  eventually  escaping  chiefly  to  New  York  bay  and  so  to  the 
ocean. 


76  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

The  water  flows  more  rapidly  in  the  East  river  than  in  any  other  arm  of  the 
harbor,  but  most  of  the  water  moves  back  and  forth,  like  the  pendulum  of  a  clock, 
without  escaping  to  the  ocean  or  to  Long  Island  Sound.  A  buoy  which  was  made  to 
float,  except  for  a  small  tell  tale,  just  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  was  followed 
back  and  forth  for  three  and  a  half  days  in  the  East  river.  At  the  end  of  this  time 
it  had  traveled  108  miles  without  passing  out  of  this  stream.  It  returned  several  times 
to  the  locality  where  it  had  been  set  adrift. 

SECTION  III 
POPULATION  AND  SEWAGE 

Population.  The  total  population  in  the  metropolitan  district  in  1905  was 
5,332,000.  It  will  probably  be  at  least  doubled  by  1940,  as  will  the  population  of 
The  City  of  New  York,  which  in  1905  was  approximately  4,000,000. 

Outside  of  The  City  of  New  York  in  the  metropolitan  district  of  New  York 
State  the  population  in  1905  was  128,000.  The  rural  districts  of  metropolitan  New 
Jersey  had  more  than  twice  this  population,  or  293,000. 

There  were  ten  cities  in  metropolitan  New  Jersey  which  had  populations  of  over 
25,000  in  1905.  The  largest  of  these  were  Newark  and  Jersey  City,  each  of  which 
had  a  population  exceeding  230,000.  The  total  population  of  these  ten  cities  was 
910,000  in  1905,  and  will  probably  be  at  least  1,700,000  by  1940. 

The  sewage  produced  in  the  metropolitan  district  is  discharged  into  the  harbor 
either  (a)  directly,  near  open  navigable  channels,  as  is  the  case  with  New  York, 
Yonkers,  Jersey  City,  Hoboken,  Bayonne  and  Elizabeth  or  (&)  indirectly  into  these 
channels  by  way  of  the  rivers,  as  is  the  case  with  White  Plains,  Mt.  Vernon,  Pater- 
son  and  Passaic. 

Quantities  of  Sewage  Discharged  into  the  Harbor.  The  total  quantities  of 
sewage  discharged  into  New  York  harbor  per  day  at  the  present  time  are  approxi- 
mately as  follows:  Into  the  East  and  Harlem  rivers  335,600,000  gallons,  into  the 
Hudson  river  164,200,000  gallons,  into  Upper  New  York  bay  104,100,000  gallons. 

Points  of  Discharge.  The  sewers  discharge  at  or  near  the  shore  line  at  mean 
low  water.  The  point  of  discharge  for  the  sewers  has  been  selected  in  practically 
each  case  with  the  object  of  getting  rid  of  the  sewage  at  the  least  cost  for  sewers  and 
with  little  or  no  consideration  of  the  consequences  to  the  public  welfare  through  a  con- 
tamination of  the  water  into  which  the  sewage  is  emptied. 

Want  of  care  in  protecting  the  purity  of  the  streams  has  produced  intolerable 
conditions  in  some  parts  of  the  metropolitan  district  and  to  remedy  these,  trunk 


POPULATION  AND  SEWAGE  77 

sewers  have  been  built  or  are  projected  to  carry  the  sewage  to  more  open  parts  of 
the  harbor. 

Purification  Works.  In  a  few  cases  works  to  purify  the  sewage  have  been  built, 
but  for  the  most  part  these  plants  have  not  been  designed  or  operated  in  accordance 
with  good  engineering  or  economic  principles  and  the  results  are  generally  unsatis- 
factory. 

Extension  of  Outfalls.  The  usual  plau  followed  to  abate  nuisances  which  have 
occurred  from  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  tributaries  of  the  harbor  is  to  carry  the 
sewage  to  some  other  point  for  disposal.  This  has  generally  been  done  by  building  the 
sewer  further  out  toward  the  more  open  waters  of  the  harbor. 

Joint  Outlet  Sewer.  A  number  of  towns  in  the  Counties  of  Essex  and  Union 
in  New  Jersey  have  constructed  the  Joint  outlet  sewer,  which  empties  its  contents 
into  the  Arthur  Kill  near  the  south  end  of  Newark  bay.  The  territory  included  by 
this  drainage  system  is  37  square  miles.  The  ultimate  population  provided  for  is 
150,000  and  the  quantity  of  sewage  which  can  be  accommodated  is  21,000,000  gallons 
per  day. 

Bronx  Valley  Sewer.  A  trunk  sewer  is  being  built  to  carry  the  sewage  which 
now  flows  into  the  Bronx  river  in  New  York  State  from  White  Plains  to  the  New 
York  city  line  to  the  Hudson  river  at  Mt.  St.  Vincent.  The  territory  drained  will 
be  34.8  square  miles.  The  present  population  is  32,700,  and  the  ultimate  quantity 
of  sewage  provided  for  is  90,000,000  gallons  per  day. 

Passaic  Valley  Sewer.  It  is  proposed  by  citizens  of  New  Jersey  to  relieve  the 
Passaic  river  of  the  sewage  which  flows  into  it  by  constructing  a  trunk  sewer  which 
will  run  from  Paterson  to  the  middle  of  Upper  New  York  bay.  The  territory  to 
be  included  in  this  project  is  103  square  miles.  The  ultimate  population  to  be  pro- 
vided for  is  1,650,000,  and  the  quantity  of  sewage  630,000,000  gallons  per  day. 

Effects  on  the  Harbor.  The  effects  upon  the  harbor  which  trunk  sewer  projects 
may  produce  cannot  all  be  foretold  with  accuracy,  although  some  of  the  principal  con- 
sequences may  be  anticipated.  It  is  certain  that  the  transfer  of  many  million  gallons 
of  crude  sewage  from  inland  places  to  points  nearer  the  centre  of  the  harbor  cannot 
take  place  without  injury  to  the  latter. 

The  measure  of  improvement  to  the  locality  benefited  and  the  injury  to  the  har- 
bor will  depend  upon  the  completeness  with  which  the  sewage  is  transferred  from 
the  one  place  to  the  other.  The  risk  is  twofold.  First,  there  is  the  chance  that  the 
sewage  will  produce  a  nuisance  before  it  becomes  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  water, 
and,  Second,  there  is  risk  that  the  sewage,  after  mixing,  will  overburden  the  capacity 
of  the  water  to  digest  it. 


78  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

General  Plan  for  Conservancy  Needed.  Within  the  metropolitan  district  condi- 
tions of  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  now  require,  and  always  will  demand,  un- 
usually careful  and  skillful  management  if  the  evil  consequences  of  sewage  pollution 
are  to  be  prevented.  The  topographical,  residential  and  industrial  conditions  in  this 
territory  are  varied  in  the  extreme.  For  many  of  the  municipalities  what  may  be 
termed  natural  facilities  for  sewage  disposal  are  wholly  lacking;  for  others  oppor- 
tunities which  once  existed  have  been  taken  away  by  the  growth  of  neighboring 
municipalities.  For  practically  all  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  metropolitan  district 
the  problem  of  disposing  of  sewage  without  danger  or  offense  has  become  impossible 
to  solve  as  a  local  question. 

Sewage  in  crude  form  is  discharged  scarcely  anywhere  on  land  or  in  water 
within  this  area  at  the  present  time  without  creating  a  nuisance  or  serious  risk  of 
nuisance.  If  it  is  not  a  nuisance  to  the  town  which  produces  it  it  is  likely  to  create 
one  at  some  other  place.  Whether  poured  directly  into  a  river,  canal  or  other  tribu- 
tary of  the  harbor,  or  carried  by  a  trunk  sewer  to  the  open  water  of  the  harbor  for 
discharge,  it  is  practically  certain  sometime  or  other  to  make  its  presence  felt. 

Future  Pollution.  It  is  not  difficult  to  anticipate  the  result  which  this  lack  of  pru- 
dence will  ultimately  produce  if  allowed  to  continue.  If  the  discharge  of  sewage  is 
not  restricted  the  waters  will  become  more  and  more  polluted,  for  the  quantity  of 
sewage  will  increase  with  the  population  while  the  quantity  of  water  into  which  it  is 
discharged  will  remain  the  same. 

Establishment  of  Plan  for  Conservancy.  The  proposal  that  a  comprehensive 
system  of  conservancy  be  established  by  law  for  New  York  harbor  is  not  without  prece- 
dent. In  fact  it  is  the  natural  and  usual  remedy  where  water  courses  have  become 
overburdened  with  sewage.  It  has  already  been  successfully  employed  in  Europe  and 
America  for  the  protection  of  rivers  and  harbors.  The  system  proposed  for  New  York 
harbor  corresponds  with  that  of  the  Rivers  Boards  of  England  and  with  that  of  the 
Metropolitan  Sewerage  Board  of  Boston  and  the  25  municipalities  in  its  vicinity. 

SECTION  IV 
CAPACITY  OF  NEW  YORK  HARBOR  FOR  SEWAGE 

Self -Purification  of  Harbor  Waters.  It  has  been  clearly  shown  that  the  sewage 
and  other  wastes  which  are  discharged  into  New  York  harbor  would  create  much  more 
offensive  conditions  than  now  exist  were  it  not  that  the  water  possesses  a  certain 
power  of  purifying  itself.  Through  the  action  of  this  power  a  large  part  of  the  waste 
matters  are  destroyed  and  rendered  inert  before  they  can  produce  the  full  amount  of 
harm  of  which  they  are  capable. 


CAPACITY  OF  IIARP.OK  FOR  SEWAGE  79 

There  is  a  limit  to  this  purifying  power,  or  digestive  capacity,  as  it  is  called. 
When  this  limit  is  exceeded  the  organic  matters  in  the  water  putrefy  and  produce 
offensive  odors. 

Oxidation.  The  purifying  power  of  the  water  is  essentially  one  of  oxidation.  All 
offensive  and  potentially  olTensivo  organic  substances,  including  the  liquid  and  solid 
ingredients  of  sewage,  must  become  oxidized  to  be  destroyed. 

Dilution.  The  first  stage  in  the  process  of  self-purification  is  dilution.  By  dilu- 
tion the  solids  of  the  sewage  become  dispersed  and  the  liquids  diffused  through  the 
water.  Without  diluting  the  sewage  there  would  not  be  enough  oxygen  present  to  per- 
mit digestion  to  proceed  far  without  the  production  of  foul  gases.  It  could  never  pro- 
ceed to  a  natural  and  necessary  termination  without,  an  adequate  supply  of  oxygen. 

Liquefaction.  The  second  stage  in  the  process  of  self-purification  consists  in  the 
liquefaction  of  the  solids  and  the  resolution  of  the  liquids  into  stable,  inert  forms. 
These  changes  involve  chemical  combination  between  the  organic  substances  of  the 
sewage  and  the  dissolved  oxygen  of  the  water.  They  take  place  largely  through  the 
action  of  living  animal  and  vegetable  organisms,  chiefly  bacteria. 

Reduction  of  Dissolved  Oxygen.  The  result  of  the  process  of  self-purification  is 
to  reduce  the  quantity  of  oxygen  present  in  solution  considerably  below  the  normal 
amount. 

Sources  of  Dissolved  Ojrygen.  The  oxygen  which  is  absorbed  is  replenished  as  it 
was  at  first  derived,  in  part  from  the  atmosphere  and  in  part  from  the  sea  water  and 
land  water  which  enter  the  harbor. 

The  maintenance  of  fish  life,  as  well  as  the  prevention  of  odors  from  putrefaction, 
require  that  the  oxygen  be  not  too  far  exhausted. 

Present  Deficiencies.  It  has  been  shown  by  numerous  analyses  of  water  taken  from 
the  harbor  at  many  places  and  at  different  depths  that  the  sewage  and  other  wastes 
which  are  discharged  into  the  harbor  cause  a  material  reduction  in  the  amount  of  dis- 
solved oxygen  present.  The  main  channels  of  the  Upper  bay,  Hudson  river,  East  river 
and  Kill  van  Kull  contain  from  GO  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  oxygen  which  should  be 
present. 

The  oxygen  is  entirely  exhausted  in  the  waters  of  the  metropolitan  district  where 
pollution  is  greatest,  as  for  example,  in  the  Passaic  river,  Newtown  creek,  Gowanus 
and  Wallabout  canals  and  scores  of  docks  and  shipping  basins. 

Sewage  Deposits.  Sewage  solids  accumulate  to  some  extent  upon  the  harbor 
bottom.  Practically  the  whole  of  the  bottom  of  Upper  New  York  bay  is  covered  with 
black,  ill-smelling  mud  in  which  particles  of  sewage  origin  are  distinguishable.  In 


80  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

places  these  deposits  have  been  found  to  attain  a  depth  of  over  ten  feet.    In  the  lower 
bay  deposits  occur  more  often  in  the  main  channels  than  elsewhere. 

Deposits  Near  Seicer  Outlets.  Deposits  from  sewers  have  not,  apparently,  caused 
serious  shoaling  in  the  navigable  channels  of  the  harbor,  although  the  total  quantity 
of  solids  which  the  combined  household  and  storm  water  sewers  of  the  metropolitan 
district  empty  into  the  harbor  annually  is  very  large.  Filling  does  undoubtedly  occur 
near  outlets,  and  sewage  solids  are  a  conspicuous  ingredient  of  harbor  deposits  where- 
ever  deposits  of  any  kind  occur.  The  dredging  between  docks  and  piers,  which  is  con- 
tinually necessary  for  the  accommodation  of  ships  along  a  large  part  of  the  waterfront 
of  New  York,  removes  black,  ill-smelling  mud  in  which  sewage  solids  exist. 

SECTION  V 
EFFECTS  ON  HEALTH 

It  has  not  been  proved  that  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  the  harbor  has  had  any 
appreciable  effect  on  the  general  healthfulness  of  the  metropolis  or  its  suburbs,  al- 
though it  is  impossible  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that  bathing  in  this  water,  collecting 
driftwood  from  it  for  fuel  and  eating  shellfish  grown  in  it  is  attended  by  risk  of  sick- 
ness. 

Infection  of  Harbor  Waters.  The  capacity  of  the  water  to  produce,  disease  de- 
pends chiefly  upon  the  chance  that  pathogenic  microbes  are  present  and  that  these 
may  in  some  way  get  from  the  water  into  the  bodies  of  persons  susceptible  to  the  dis- 
eases of  which  these  microbes  are  the  product.  There  is  no  question  that  the  sewage 
of  New  York,  and  consequently,  mixtures  of  the  sewage  and  water,  are  dangerous,  for 
they  contain  the  germs  of  every  infectious  disease  which  occurs  there.  It  remains  to 
consider  how  long  disease  germs  are  capable  of  living  in  the  water  and  how  the  water 
may  become  a  means  of  transference  of  poisonous  matter  to  the  people  of  the  metro- 
politan district. 

Life  of  Bacteria  in  Harbor  Waters.  Bacteriologists  have  not  determined  how  long 
germs  of  disease  are  able  to  live  in  harbor  water,  but  interesting  work  has  been  done  in 
connection  with  this  subject.  Useful  results  have  been  obtained  in  studying  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  the  germs  of  typhoid  fever  may  persist.  As  far  as  this  in- 
formation goes  it  appears  that  when  typhoid  germs  are  mixed  with  harbor  water  a 
rapid  reduction  in  numbers  generally  occurs  at  once.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three 
days  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  original  number  of  bacteria  are  pi-esent.  At  the 
end  of  about  a  week  a  further  slight  reduction  has  occurred.  Some  survive  for  two  or 
three  weeks,  and  under  exceptional  circumstances  it  would  seem  that  the  vitality  of 
some  typhoid  germs  might  persist  for  months. 


EFFECT  OF  POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  ON  HEALTH          81 

Evidence  is  on  record  to  show  that  germs  of  typhoid  have  traveled  80  miles  or 
more  in  water  from  I  heir  point  of  origin  before  being  destroyed. 

There  is  believed  to  be  no  reduction  in  the  virulence  of  typhoid  germs  or  other  mi- 
crobes because  of  their  existence  in  water.  The  most  resistant  survive,  and  these  are, 
apparently,  well  qualified  to  multiply  and  produce  disease  in  any  susceptible  person. 
It  seems  a  well-established  fact  that  no  pathogenic  microbes  are  capable  of  multiply- 
ing in  harbor  waters  under  circumstances  which  are  likely  to  exist, 

Methods  of  Acquiring  Infection.  The  water  may  convey  the  germs  of  disease  to 
susceptible  persons  in  many  ways.  Chief  among  these  are  by  bathing,  eating  shell- 
fish, handling  driftwood  and  by  fishing. 

Obscure  Relation  Between  Polluted  Harbor  and  Sickness.  Contrary  to  what 
might  be  expected,  there  is  little  statistical  evidence  to  show  bow  much  sickness  is  pro- 
duced by  polluted  harbors.  Repeated  attempts  to  collect  such  evidence  have  been 
made,  but  without  success.  When  the  river  Thames  at  London  was  giving  off  its  worst 
stenches,  prior  to  the  construction  of  the  sewerage  system  which  was  built  to  protect 
the  river,  the  vital  statistics  of  the  city  showed  no  increase  in  the  prevalence  of  any 
disease  which  the  sanitarians  of  that  day  could  ascribe  to  the  odors.  Inquiries  indi- 
cated that  the  health  of  wharfmen  and  boatmen  was  not  visibly  affected.  When  the 
river  Liffey  was  being  described  by  British  experts  as  the  most  abominable  nuisance 
in  Ireland,  efforts  were  made  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  sickness  near  the  waterfront 
of  Dublin,  but  no  excess  of  illness  could  be  found. 

Failure  to  discover  an  increase  in  disease  does  not,  of  course,  prove  that  harm  is 
iiot  done  to  public  health  by  such  conditions.  The  methods  of  inquiry  available  are  too 
crude  to  detect  all  the  harm.  Only  the  most  conspicuous  evils,  such  as  cases  of  specific 
intestinal  diseases  can  be  hopefully  looked  for.  The  paths  of  infection  are  often  too 
complicated  to  be  followed.  Subtle  effects  upon  health  similar  to  those  produced  by 
insufficient  air,  food,  sunlight,  exercise  and  rest,  cannot  readily  be  detected,  measured 
and  traced.  It  is  possible  that  such  effects  may  be  produced  by  the  condition  of  har- 
bor waters. 

Assuming  it  to  be  a  fact  that  a  polluted  harbor  produces  no  effect  upon  the  death 
rate,  this  does  not  remove  the  necessity  for  keeping  the  water  reasonably  clean.  The 
requirements  of  decency  and  order  which  now  obtain  and  which  will  become  more  ex- 
acting as  time  proceeds  are  sufficient  reasons  for  maintaining  a  sanitary  harbor. 

Nevertheless,  the  careless  discharge  of  sewage  into  harbors  does  produce  sickness 
and  death,  and  for  those  who  wish  positive  proof  of  this  fact  there  is  some  conclusive 
evidence. 


82  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

Shellfish  <nul  Infected  Harbor  Waters.  The  best  proof  of  a  relation  between  pol- 
luted harbor  water  and  disease  lies  in  connection  with  .shellfish.  There  have  been 
more  than  enough  cases  of  typhoid  fever  and  gastro-enteritis  reliably  traced  to  the 
eating  of  oysters,  clams  and  other  shellfish  taken  from  polluted  waters  to  show  that 
a  very  real  danger  to  health  exists  in  this  direction.  Shellfish  taken  from  sewage-pol- 
luted water  are  practically  certain  to  be  polluted. 

Typhoid  Fcrcr  from  Oysters.  In  The  City  of  New  York  cases  of  typhoid  have  been 
known  to  arise  merely  from  handling  the  shells  of  oysters  and  clams  taken  from  pol- 
luted places.  The  total  amount  of  sickness  caused  by  impure  shellfish  is  not  known; 
it  is  probably  not  great,  but  it  is  certainly  more  than  is  commonly  supposed.  Only  the 
most  striking  and  obvious  cases  come  to  light. 

Within  the  last  few  years  much  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  need  of  regu- 
lating the  sanitary  conditions  attending  the  cultivation  and  handling  of  shellfish,  with 
the  result  that  health  authorities  have  been  moved  to  abate  some  of  the  most  danger- 
ous practices.  Improvements  in  the  cultivation  of  shellfish  have  been  made  in  the 
metropolitan  district,  but  a  great  deal  remains  to  be  done.  In  most  parts  of  the  metro- 
politan district  the  shellfish  industry  must  be  given  up,  in  others  better  methods  of  dis- 
posing of  the  sewage  will  reduce  the  danger.  There  always  will  be  risk  attending  the 
eating  of  shellfish  taken  from  the  harbor.  So  long  as  shellfish  grow  in  these  waters,  as 
they  still  readily  do  without  cultivation,  the  public  health  authorities  must  regulate 
their  capture  and  sale.  There  will  always  be  some  persons  to  gather  them  in  spite  of 
the  best  efforts  of  the  authorities. 

Bathing  in  Harbor  Water.  Bathing  in  the  free  floating  bathing  establishments 
may  be  refreshing  and  may  give  pleasure  to  the  bathers,  some  of  whom  thus  learn  to 
swim;  but  the  baths  have  little  cleansing  value.  The  water  is  unwholesome  and  even 
dangerous  for  bathing  purposes.  Floating  particles  of  sewage  enter  many  of  the  pools, 
even  though  situated  500  feet  or  more  from  a  sewer  outlet.  When  bathing  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  avoid  accidentally  taking  some  of  the  water  into  the  mouth  and  nasal 
passages  and  having  it  come  in  contact  with  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  eye.  It  is 
not  to  be  doubted  that  bathing  in  such  water  is  a  frequent  source  of  infection. 

Abolishment  of  Floating  Bathing  Establishments.  As  soon  as  possible  the  mainte- 
nance of  free  floating  bathing  establishments  should  be  discontinued.  This  is  already 
appreciated  by  the  City  authorities. 


DIGEST  OF  COMMISSION'S  INVESTIGATIONS  83 

SECTION  VI 

MAIN    FACTS    AND   OPINIONS    DERIVED    FROM    THE    INVESTIGATIONS 
AS  TO  THE  INTENSITY  OF  POLLUTION   OF   THE   HARBOR   WATERS 

Without  going  into  details  of  the  technical  information  obtained,  a  full  account 
of  which  will  be  found  elsewhere,  the  principal  facts  and  conclusions  resulting  from 
the  Commission's  work  will  be  stated  here. 

Excepting  Lower  New  York  bay,  the  Hudson  river  above  Spuyten  Duyvil  and 
Long  Island  Sound,  practically  all  the  waters  within  15  miles  of  Manhattan  Island 
are  decidedly  polluted  as  determined  by  inspections  and  chemical,  bacterial  and 
microscopical  analyses. 

In  that  part  of  the  district  included  between  the  Narrows,  Throgs  Neck,  Mt.  St. 
Vincent  and  the  mouth  of  the  Raritan  river  the  pollution  is  greatest. 

The  Harlem  river  is  more  polluted  than  the  East  river,  the  East  river  more  than 
the  Hudson  and  the  Hudson  more  than  the  Upper  bay. 

In  the  worst  places  the  paint  on  ships  becomes  discolored  and  the  waters  are 
incapable  of  supporting  fish  life.  The  City  of  New  York  maintains  bathing  estab- 
lishments on  the  shores  of  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn  in  which  over  2,000,000  baths 
are  taken  annually. 

Many  of  the  smaller  rivers  and  inner  tributaries  of  the  harbor  are  now  so  heav- 
ily charged  with  sewage  as  to  constitute  extensive  local  nuisances.  The  waters  in 
these  places  are  black,  and,  in  many  places,  effervesce  with  foul  gases. 

Outside  the  inner  harbor,  that  is,  below  the  Narrows,  as  well  as  beyond  Throgs 
Neck  and  in  the  Hudson  river  above  Manhattan  Island,  samples  of  water,  and  sedi- 
ment bear  evidence  of  pollution,  although  the  intensity  of  contamination  is  less  there 
than  in  that  section  which  is  known  as  the  inner  harbor. 

Gowauus  canal  and  Newtown  creek  and  the  Passaic  river  are  polluted  beyond  the 
limits  of  toleration. 

The  Harlem  river,  particularly  at  its  southern  end,  is,  at  times,  little  else  than 
an  open  sewer. 


OF    THE 

[  UNIVERSITY    I 

OF 


84 


SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 


BROOKLYN 


MANHATTAN     -     3255 


1 


NEWARK   -    268  4 


BRONX   -    259  O 


QUEENS- 191  1 


JERSEY   CITV-IH* 


UOBOKIN 
ISO 


6AVONNE  31 


ELIZABETH-70.0 


STATEN  »S(.ANO-7»! 


PATERSON-S50 


JOINT  OUTLET  JEWER  NJ  -1000 


MILES    OF     SEWERS 


CHAPTER  III 

SUMMARY    OF    EXISTING    CONDITIONS    WITH    COMMENTS    AND 

SUGGESTIONS 

SECTION  I 
METHODS  OF  SEWERAGE   IN   USE 

Separate  and  Combined  Systems.  The  10  cities  in  the  metropolitan  sewerage  dis- 
trict, the  sewerage  of  which  has  been  described  in  the  foregoing  pages,  have  an  aggre- 
gate population  of  5,120,000  and  are  provided  with  2,903  miles  of  sewers  as  well  as 
12  plants  for  the  treatment  of  the  sewage  prior  to  its  discharge  into  adjacent  waters. 
All  these  cities  discharge  their  sewage  by  gravity,  except  five  in  which  ten  pumping 
stations  are  in  use  to  pump  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  sewage. 

There  are  2,410  miles  of  combined  sewers  in  19  cities  with  a  population  of 
1,603,000. 

There  are  163  miles  of  separate  sewers  in  2(5  cities  with  a  population  of  501,000. 

With  the  exception  of  Paterson  and  Newark  all  the  cities  in  the  Passaic  valley, 
within  the  boundaries  of  the  metropolitan  sewerage  district,  have  separate  systems 
of  sewers,  as  have  also  the  principal  towns  in  Richmond  Borough  and  all  the  munic- 
ipalities in  the  Westchester  County  district  outside  of  The  Bronx.  The  remaining 
districts  having  separate  systems  are  portions  of  those  sections  of  the  Boroughs  of 
Brooklyn  and  Queens  in  which  the  sewage  requires  purification  or  treatment,  and  of 
the  territory  in  New  Jersey  tributary  to  the  Joint  outlet  sewer. 

Relief  Seiccrs.  Owing  to  insufficiency  in  size,  flatness  of  grades  or  changes  in 
conditions  since  constructed  many  large  relief  sewers  have  been  built  in  several  lo- 
calities. 

In  Manhattan  extensive  changes  have  been  required  in  the  sewerage  system  as  a 
result  of  subway  construction.  The  troubles  in  this  regard  have  apparently  only 
begun  as  the  subways  so  far  built  keep  well  toward  the  central  axis  of  Manhattan 
Island  where  little  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  readjusting  sewer  grades  to 
new  conditions.  When  the  additional  subways  along  streets  nearer  the  water  front 
are  undertaken  much  difficulty  will  be  encountered,  and  a  practical  reconstruction 
of  the  entire  sewerage  system  may  become  a  necessity.  The  work  of  changing  the 
sewers  to  accommodate  the  subways  is  done  by  the  Public  Service  Commission.  Dur- 


86  SUMMAKY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

ing  1909  this  Commission  built  more  lineal  feet    of    sewers    in    Manhattan    than    the 
Bureau  of  Sewers,  and  often  without  consultation  with  the  Bureau  of  Sewers. 

In  Brooklyn  less  difficulty  has  been  experienced  with  respect  to  subway  con- 
struction than  in  Manhattan,  and  all  new  sewers  or  extensions  are  planned  so  as  to 
avoid  interference  with  prospective  subways.  The  principal  difficulties  in  this 
borough  have  arisen  from  extensions  of  existing  sewers  to  new  territory,  or  the  in- 
creasing of  the  percentage  of  impervious  areas,  such  as  pavements  and  roofs,  whereby 
the  sewers  have  become  overcharged  during  heavy  rains,  resulting  in  damages  of  con- 
siderable extent.  Examples  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  the  new  relief  sewer  emptying 
into  the  East  river  at  Gold  street,  built  to  divert  the  entire  flow  from  the  old  Greene 
avenue  relief  sewer,  and  in  the  proposed  Classou  avenue  relief  sewer  built  also  to  di- 
vert storm  water  from  the  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer,  but  at  a  point  about  one  and 
a  quarter  miles  above  where  the  Gold  street  relief  sewer  connects. 

Another  relief  sewer  of  a  different  nature,  and  serving  a  different  purpose  is  the 
Gowanus  canal  flushing  tunnel,  extending  from  the  head  of  Gowauus  canal  under 
Degraw  street  to  the  harbor,  with  a  nine-foot  propeller  puinp  to  force  the  water  of  the 
polluted  canal  through  the  tunnel  to  the  swift  waters  of  Buttermilk  channel.  The 
water  pumped  out  of  the  canal  will  be  replaced  with  harbor  water  flowing  up  the 
canal  towards  the  pump,  thus  tending  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  canal  and 
abate  the  nuisance  now  prevailing  there.  This  beneficial  result  will  be  assisted  by 
the  operation  of  the  Gold  street  relief  sewer  which  will  divert  all  the  dry  weather 
sewage  from  the  15-foot  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer  which  heretofore  has  discharged 
into  the  head  of  the  canal. 

In  The  Bronx  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  relieve  the  old  Brook  avenue,  or 
Webster  avenue  sewer  of  its  flood  waters  at  a  point  about  midway  of  its  length  by 
means  of  a  large  tunnel  running  westward  from  Webster  avenue  at  Wendover,  and 
emptying  into  the  Harlem  river  just  above  Highbridge.  This,  however,  is  only  a 
temporary  relief,  as  when  the  watershed  tributary  to  the  old  sewer  becomes  fully 
built  up  the  run-off  will  increase  so  greatly  that  another  sewer,  at  least  as  large 
as  the  present  one,  will  have  to  parallel  it  to  carry  off  the  storm  water  refused  by  the 
present  sewer. 

Other  difficulties  in  The  Bronx  have  been  experienced  in  the  Bungay  creek  and 
Leggetts  creek  watersheds,  outletting  at  East  One  Hundred  and  Forty-ninth  street 
and  Tiffany  street  respectively.  To  meet  this  condition  there  has  recently  been  built 
the  Truxton  street  sewer,  7  feet  3  inches  by  11  feet  6  inches  in  size  at  the  outlet.  This 
sewer  taps  the  territory  most  affected  and  gives  additional  sewer  capacity  for  the 
conveyance  of  storm  water  to  the  East  Kiver. 


EXISTING  METHODS  OP  SEWERAGE  87 

Queens  Borough  is  so  sparsely  built  up,  with  the  exception  of  the  Long  Island  City 
district,  that  the  impending  drainage  difficulties  have  not  been  foreshadowed  by  past 
experiences.  This,  however,  will  be  the  most  difficult  and  most  expensive  borough  to 
sewer  in  Greater  New  York,  owing  to  the  great  lengths  of  relatively  level  territory, 
and  the  availability  and  desirability  of  the  borough  for  residential,  business  and 
manufacturing  purposes,  enhanced  by  its  prospective  connection  with  Manhattan 
through  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  tunnel  and  by  the  proposed  creation  of  a  great 
harbor  in  Jamaica  bay.  With  great  centers  of  population  on  both  Jamaica  bay  and 
the  East  river  relief  and  intercepting  sewers,  with  extensive  pumping  stations  and 
purification  works  will  be  a  necessity. 

One  of  the  large  sewers  in  Queens  is  the  15-foot  Brooklyn-Queens  interborough 
sewer  now  under  construction.  This  will  discharge  storm  water  into  the  head  of 
Newtown  creek  and  sewage  or  dry  weather  flow  into  the  Johnson  avenue  sewer  in 
Brooklyn,  which  outlets  into  the  East  river  at  South  Fifth  street. 

Another  large  intercepting  sewer  has  been  proposed  extending  north  from  Elm- 
hurst  to  Hell  Gate  and  emptying  at  the  foot  of  Winthrop  street.  This,  with  the 
Theodore  street  outlet  sewer  would  serve  to  collect  the  dry  weather  flow  of  the  en- 
tire territory  between  Long  Island  City  and  the  Flushing  district.  Lt  is  considered 
too  expensive  for  immediate  necessities,  however,  by  the  Bureau  of  Sewers,  and  its 
execution  will  be  delayed  as  long  as  possible. 

In  the  New  Jersey  district  the  tendency  is  for  several  municipalities  to  join 
forces  to  secure  sewerage  facilities.  Among  the  existing  joint  sewers  are: 

(a)  The  Union  outlet  sewer  of  Montclair,  Orange,  Bloomfield  and  Glen 
Ridge. 

(&)  The  Joint  outlet  for  South  and  West  Orange,  Vailsburg,  Newark, 
Summit,  Elizabeth  and  other  towns  to  the  west  of  Newark. 

(c)  The  Cranford-Rahway  outlet,  taking  the  sewage  of  Cranford  and  part 
of  that  from  Rahway  to  an  outlet  into  the  Rahway  river,  a  mile  or  so  below 
Rahway. 

(d)  The     Millbrook     sewer    of  Newark,   through  which   the  East  Orange 
.se\vage  is  discharged  into  the  Passaic. 

(c)  The  Jersey  City-Bergen  joint  sewer  for  the  relief  of  sections  of  both 
of  those  communities,  and  discharging  into  Penhorn  creek,  a  tributary  of  the 
Hackensack  river. 

There  are  also  proposed  two  other  joint  sewers  for  this  general  district: 

(a)  The  Passaic  valley  sewer  planned  to  take  the  dry  weather  sewage  flow 
of  Paterson,  Passaic  and  Newark,  with  all  the  smaller  intervening  towns 
out  of  the  Passaic  and  discharge  it  into  New  York  harbor  near  Robbins  Reef, 
and 


88  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

(6)  A  sewer  for  the  Hackensack  valley  to  take  the  Englewood,  Ridgefield 
and  Ridgefield  Park  sewage,  as  well  as  that  of  other  settlements  in  that  valley, 
to  a  purification  plant  on  Peapack  creek  near  its  confluence  with  the  Hackensack 
river. 

Sewers  to  intercept  the  dry  weather  flow  of  the  sewage  for  delivering  to  more 
suitable  outlets,  have  been  built  in  Newark,  Elizabeth  and  Jersey  City,  which  latter 
city  has  built  several  storm  relief  sewers  to  protect  property  in  different  sections 
from  sewer  floodings. 

In  the  Bronx  valley  district  the  towns  away  from  tidewater  have  joined  in  the 
construction  of  the  Bronx  valley  sewer  which  is  to  take  the  sewage  of  White  Plains 
and  all  the  towns  to  the  south  as  far  as  Mt.  Vernon,  to  an  outlet  into  the  Hudson 
river  just  above  The  Bronx  borough  line.  The  work  on  this  sewer  is  under  way. 

Pumping  Plants.  Pumping,  to  get  rid  of  the  sewage,  is  resorted  to  at  the  fol- 
lowing places: 

(a)  Neicark,  AT.  J.     The  dry  weather  flow  of  sewage  of  about  one-third  of 
the  city  is  lifted  from  the  interceptor  and  discharged  into  Newark  bay.    A  small 
pumping  station  is  also  in  operation  in  the  Meadow  brook  system. 

(b)  Elizabeth,  N.  J.     The  dry  weather  flow  of  sewage  is  lifted  from  the  in- 
terceptor and  discharged  into  the  Joint  outlet  sewer. 

(c)^  White  Plains,  N.  Y.  Part  of  the  town's  sewage  is  lifted  at  an  ejector 
station  whence  it  flows  to  the  disposal  works. 

(d)  Brooklyn,  1?.  Y.     1,  East  New  York  purification  plant;  2,  Sheepshead 
Bay  purification  plant;  3,  Coney  Island  purification  plant,   caisson   No.  2;  4, 
Coney  Island  purification  plant,  caisson  No.  3   (at  each  of  these  four  plants 
the  sewage  is  lifted  from  the  collecting  sewers  to  the  sedimentation  basins)  ;  5, 
Gowanus  canal  flushing  tunnel    (in  construction,  see  description). 

(e)  Queens  Borough.     1,  Jamaica  purification  plant;  2,  Elmhnrst  purifi- 
cation plant;  3,  Far  Rockaway  purification  plant.    At  each  of  these  plants  the 
sewage  has  to  be  lifted  from  the  collecting  sewer  for  discharge  into  the  sedi- 
mentation tanks.    At  Far  Rockaway  ejector  stations  are  also  used  to  lift  the 
sewage  from  low  to  higher  level  sewers. 

SECTION  II 
METHODS  EMPLOYED  IN  DESIGNING  SEWERS 

Determination  of  Quantity  of  Sewage  and  Storm  Water.  In  all  the  Boroughs  of 
The  City  of  New  York  and  in  the  other  towns  in  both  the  Westchester  and  the  New 
Jersey  districts  the  older  sewers  were  not  designed  under  a  system  taking  into  ac- 
count the  quantities  of  sewage  flow  to  be  expected,  the  velocities,  the  proper  capacities, 
or  the  proper  forms  of  outlets.  Of  the  oldest,  many  were  built  by  private  citizens  to 
drain  their  properties,  or  by  the  towns  to  get  rid  of  surface  water,  houses  being  later 
connected  thereto. 


DESIGN  OF  SEWERS  89 

In  more  recent  times  various  attempts  were  made  to  place  the  designs  on  a  rational 
basis.  The  general  data  upon  which  the  calculations  have  been  based  in  preparing  the 
designs  for  the  sewers  in  several  of  the  different  communities  within  the  metropolitan 
sewerage  district  Avill  be  described  below. 

Quantity  of  Water  Rcavliiny  Seicers.  The  quantity  of  water  expected  to  reach  the 
sewers  in  a  given  unit  of  time,  or  the  rate  of  run  off  from  a  given  area,  is  determined  in 
the  different  municipalities  by  the  use  of  various  formulae.  In  Manhattan,  Newark  and 
Ilackeusack  these  quantities  are  estimated  by  the  formula  deduced  by  Rudolph  Hering, 
C.  E.,  from  the  gaugings  of  certain  sewer  flows  from  representative  areas  in  The  City 
of  New  York.  This  formula  is  as  follows: 

Q  =  cr  A  -85  X  S  -27 

For  the  New  York  conditions  the  values  of  cr  are  1.02  for  suburban  areas,  1.39 
for  built-up  areas  and  1.01  for  completely  built-up  areas.  A,  in  the  formula,  is  the  area 
drained,  expressed  in  acres.  S  is  the  average  slope  of  the  area  in  feet  per  thousand 
measured  along  the  flow  line. 

For  Newark  the  figures  used  are : 

c  =  ;  1.0     for  suburban  area. 

1.23  for  well  built-up  area. 

1.50  for  completely  built-up  area,  taking  r  at  1.5  inches  per  hour. 

In  Brooklyn  McMath's  formula  is  used  taking  a  maximum  rate  of  rainfall  of 
three  inches  per  hour  for  a  storm  of  30  minutes  duration.  In  The  Bronx  and  Rich- 
mond the  quantities  are  determined  from  the  formula  Q  =  C  I  T  in  which  Q  equals 
cubic  feet  per  second  of  run-off,  C  the  percentage  of  impervious  surface,  I  the  intensity 
of  the  rainfall  in  inches  per  hour  and  T  the  elapsed  time  in  minutes.  For  the  Bronx 

I  is  found  from  the  formula  I  =-7=—     ;   For  Richmond  I  is  taken  as  equal  to    ~ — ^ 

_L  -f-  oU  L  -f  .Jo 

following  a  live-minute  rainfall  at  the  rate  of  3.5  inches  per  hour. 

In    the   Borough   of   Queens    the   run-off   is   determined    from   rational   additive 

72  5  T  299  85 

methods  using  I,  the  intensity  of  the  rainfall,  as  equal  to  — FfTTm — A"IA\       following 

a  ten-minute  rainfall  at  the  rate  of  three  inches  per  hour. 

In  Manhattan  the  allowance  for  impervious  surfaces  is  of  50  per  cent,  to  80  per 
cent.;  in  Brooklyn,  50  per  cent,  to  75  per  cent.;  in  The  Bronx,  14  per  cent,  to  75  per 
cent.;  in  Queens,  31  per  cent,  to  81  per  cent.,  and  in  Richmond,  3(5  per  cent,  to  82  per 
cent.  The  allowances  for  impervious  surfaces  in  The  Bronx  are  based  on  an  analysis 
of  the  rate  of  flow  in  several  cities  (See  Vol.  LVIII.,  page  450,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. ). 
In  Queens,  the  percentage  of  impervious  surface  is  based  on  Prof.  Ogden's  analyses  of 
Kuichliug's  general  investigations.  In  the  various  municipalities  an  allowance  for 
the  percolation  of  ground  water  into  the  sewers  is  made  as  follows:  Manhattan,  0; 


90  SUMMARY    OP    INVESTIGATIONS 

Brooklyn,  0  to  .003  cubic  foot  per  second  per  acre;  The  Bronx,  no  allowance  made  for 
combined  sewers,  but  half  the  capacity  is  added  for  ground  water  to  the  sanitary 
sewers;  in  Queens,  an  allowance  of  20,000  to  75,000  gallons  per  mile  of  sewers  per  day 
is  made;  in  Richmond,  no  allowance  is  made  for  combined  sewers,  but  an  allowance 
of  from  10  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  maximum  flow  is  made  for  sanitary  sewers.  For  the 
Joint  outlet  sewer  an  allowance  of  25,000  gallons  per  mile  per  day  was  made,  but  the 
actual  leakage  was  found  not  to  exceed  about  15,000  gallons. 

The  assumed  population  per  acre  on  the  watershed  in  Manhattan  is  determined 
from  the  census  returns ;  in  Brooklyn  it  is  assumed  to  be  100  per  acre  and  upwards ; 
in  The  Bronx,  100  per  acre  and  upwards;  in  Queens,  50  to  125  per  acre;  in  Richmond, 
40  to  160  per  acre;  in  Newark,  90  per  acre;  in  Elizabeth,  87  per  acre;  in  Hackeosack, 
40  to  75  per  acre.  The  Joint  outlet  was  designed  for  an  ultimate  population  of  100,000 
persons. 

The  assumed  dry  weather  flow  in  the  sewers  in  Manhattan  is  taken  as  equal  to 
the  water  consumption ;  in  Brooklyn  it  is  assumed  to  be  100  gallons  per  capita  with 
variation  according  to  the  water  consumption ;  in  The  Bronx,  125  gallons  per  capita 
with  three-quarters  of  the  quantity  running  off  in  the  sewer  in  12  hours.  In  Queens 
it  is  assumed  to  be  from  75  to  125  gallons  per  capita;  iu  Richmond,  125  gallons  per 
capita  with  70  per  cent,  running  off  in  ten  hours;  in  Newark,  75  gallons  per  capita 
with  GO  per  cent,  running  off  in  eight  hours;  for  the  Joint  outlet  sewer,  110  gallons 
per  capita  of  ultimate  population ;  in  Elizabeth,  50  gallons  per  capita,  half  running 
off  in  the  sewers  in  six  hours;  in  Hackeusack,  GO  gallons  per  capita  with  half  running 
oft'  in  eight  hours.  The  velocity  of  flow  and  capacities  of  the  sewers  are  determined  in 
Manhattan,  Brooklyn,  The  Bronx,  Queens,  Richmond,  Newark,  the  Joint  outlet  sewer, 
Elizabeth,  Jersey  City  and  Hackensack  by  the  use  of  Kutter's  formula.  In  Kutter's 
formula  the  value  of  u,  which  takes  into  account  the  roughness  of  the  interior  surface 
of  the  sewer  is  assumed  for  pipe  sewers  to  be,  in  all  the  cities,  0.013 ;  for  brick  sewers  in 
Manhattan,  Richmond  and  Jersey  City  it  is  taken  as  0.013  and  in  Brooklyn  and  The 
Bronx  and  Queens,  Richmond,  Newark  and  Hackensack  at  0.015.  For  concrete  in 
Manhattan  is  used  0.011;  in  Brooklyn,  Queens,  Newark,  0.015;  in  The  Bronx,  0.014, 
and  in  Richmond,  0.011  for  smooth  finished  concrete. 

Sizes,  in  Manhattan  the  largest  sewers  are  as  follows :  Two  entering  at  Manhat- 
tan street,  7  feet  and  7  feet  8  inches  in  diameter,  which  drain  633  acres;  three  sewers 
at  West  Forty-second  street,  equivalent  to  an  11-foot  6-inch  circular  sewer;  three 
sewers  at  Clarkson  street  with  a  combined  area  equal  to  a  10-foot  8-inch  circle;  three  at 
Canal  equivalent  to  one  13-foot  circular  sewer;  one  at  East  Forty-ninth  street  equiv- 
alent to  an  8-foot  9-inch  circular  sewer;  one  at  East  One  Hundred  and  Tenth  street 


DESIGN  OF  SEWERS  91 

draining  7(10  acres  and  with  a  section  equivalent  to  a  10-foot  circle,  and  one  at  East  One 
Hundred  and  Fifty-first  street  draining  330  acres  to  the  Harlem  river  and  being  9  feet 
G  inches  in  diameter.  The  greater  number  of  Manhattan's  sewers  are  elliptical  or  egg- 
shaped,  though  many  are  circular  and  some  rectangular  with  reinforced  concrete  tops 
and  sides. 

In  Brooklyn  the  largest  sewers  are  the  Brooklyn-Queens  interborough  sewer  with 
an  outlet  section  equivalent  to  a  circle  of  16  feet  diameter;  the  South  Fifth  street 
sewer,  with  a  diameter  of  12  feet;  the  Gold  street  relief  sewer,  14  feet  diameter;  the 
Kent  avenue  sewer,  9  feet  diameter;  the  Gowanus  canal  flushing  tunnel,  12  feet  in  diam- 
eter; the  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer,  15  feet  diameter;  the  Forty-ninth  street  sewer, 
10  feet  diameter;  the  Sixty-fourth  street  sewer,  15  feet  diameter;  the  Ninety-second 
street  sewer,  11  feet  diameter,  the  Van  Sicklen  avenue  sewer,  leading  to  the  East  New 
York  purification  works,  15  feet  diameter  and  the  10-foot  sewer  leading  to  Paerdegat 
basin. 

In  The  Bronx  the  largest  sewers  are:  The  Brook  avenue  sewer,  11  feet  2  inches  in 
diameter;  the  Tiffany  street  sewer,  10  feet  diameter;  the  Jerome  avenue  sewer,  9  feet 
0  inches  diameter;  the  Broadway  outlet,  1C  feet  fi  inches  diameter;  the  Farragut  street 
sewer,  15  feet  G  inches  diameter;  the  Webster  avenue  relief  tunnel,  13  feet  G  inches 
diameter;  the  Truxton  street  relief,  11  feet  G  inches  by  7  feet  3  inches,  and  Lafayette 
avenue,  two  10-foot  by  8-foot  sewers,  and  one  12-foot  by  9-foot  sewer. 

In  Queens  the  largest  sewers  are  the  Harris  avenue  sewer,  7  feet  8  inches  by  7  feet 
7  inches;  the  Webster  avenue  sewer,  equivalent  to  a  14-foot  diameter  circular  sewer; 
the  Hoyt  street  sewer,  8  feet  by  12  feet;  the  Ingleside-Flushing  outlet  sewer,  9  feet 
diameter,  and  the  Fifth  avenue  outlet  at  College  Point,  5  feet  diameter.  The  largest 
sewer  in  Queens  is  the  Brooklyn-Queens  interborough  sewer  with  a  section  equivalent 
to  a  IG-foot  circle;  this,  however,  has  been  enumerated  among  the  Brooklyn  sewers  as 
its  storm  water  outfall  is  in  Brooklyn  into  Newtown  creek,  ami  sanitary  outfall 
through  Johnson  street  sewer  into  East  river. 

Richmond  has  very  few  large  sewers,  the  lines  being  as  a  rule  short  and  steep. 
The  only  ones  of  special  note  are  the  Nautilus  street  sewer,  draining  3G7  acres,  and 
G  feet  G  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  Canal  street  storm  water  sewer,  under  construc- 
tion, and  9  feet  3  inches  in  diameter. 

If  all  the  sewers  in  each  borough  of  New  York  were  combined  into  one  large  sewer 
their  areas  and  diameters  would  be  as  given  in  the  following  tabulation : 


92 


SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 
TABLE  I 

COMBINED  AREAS  OF  SEWERS  IN  THE  CITY  OP  NEW  YORK 


Borough 

Total    area     of 
sewer  outlets 
in  square  feet 

Diameter  of 
circle  having 
same  area  as 
the  combined 
areas  of  all 
sewers  in  the 
Borough 

Number  of  per- 
sons for  whom 
one  square 
foot  of  sewer 
area  provides 
sewerage 

Square  feet  ''of 
sewer  open- 
ing provided 
for  each  one 
thousand  per- 
sons (1905) 

Square  feet  of 
sower  aro;i 
provided  for 
each  square 
mile  of  bor- 
ough 

Manhattan  

2,500 
2,097 

56'  5" 

51'  8" 

840 
645 

1.19 
1.55 

114 
36 

The  Bronx  

763 

31'  2" 

356 

2.81 

13 

028 

28'  3" 

315 

5.38 

5 

317 

20'  1" 

230 

4.32 

5 

Total 

6,305 

89'  S" 

645 

1  57 

20 

That  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  the  harbor  waters  would  constitute  a  stream 
of  significant  size,  if  concentrated  into  one  is  indicated  by  the  figures  given  in  the 
above  table.  The  total  volume  of  discharge,  during  a  storm  of  sufficient  intensity  to 
cause  the  sewers  to  run  full,  would  be  equivalent  to  a  stream  as  wide  as  the  East  river 
at  the  Brooklyn  Bridge,  running  four  feet  deep,  with  a  mean  velocity  of  four  feet  per 
second. 

The  relatively  greater  sewerage  development  in  Manhattan,  than  in  Brooklyn, 
The  Bronx,  Queens,  and  Richmond,  is  shown  in  the  last  column. 

Other  notable  sewers  within  the  metropolitan  sewerage  district  are  the  Bronx 
valley  sewer,  6  feet  in  diameter,  opposite  Mt.  Vernon,  and  8  feet  at  the  Hudson  river 
portal  and  draining  sewage  only  from  the  towns  in  the  valley  between  White  Plains 
and  its  outlet;  the  Millbrook  sewer  in  Newark,  which  has  twin  outlets  of  horse-shoe 
shape,  each  0  feet  9  inches  by  9  feet  3  inches;  the  Polk  street  sewer,  also  in  Newark, 
an  elliptical  section  with  long  axis  horizontal,  8  feet  by  7  feet;  the  7-foot  10-inch  cir- 
cular sewer  in  Paterson  draining  an  area  of  1,504  acres  to  the  Passaic  at  Market  street; 
the  Joint  outlet  sewer  for  South  Orange  and  other  municipalities,  G  feet  diameter  at  its 
outlet  into  Kill  van  Kull,  at  Elizabeth;  the  creek  sewer,  4  feet  by  9  feet,  in  Hacken- 
sack ;  the  8-foot  sewer  in  Twelfth  street,  the  two  8-foot  9-inch  sewers  in  Carteret  street, 
and  the  7-foot  sewer  in  Van  Winkle  avenue  in  Jersey  City;  and  the  three  sewers  with 
rectangular  section  8  feet  by  8  feet  discharging  into  the  slip  at  the  foot  of  Provost  street, 
Park  avenue  and  Bloomfield  street,  respectively,  in  Hoboken. 

Shapes  and  Materials.  No  standard  shapes  appear  to  be  adhered  to  in  any  of  the 
municipalities. 


DESIGN  OF  SEAYERS  93 

In  Manhattan,  egg-shaped  sewers  predominate  except  for  the  larger  sizes,  which 
may  be  circular,  horse-shoe  or  rectangular  in  section.  Most  of  the  sewers  are  of  brick, 
but  there  are  a  few  pipe  as  well  as  concrete  sewers. 

In  Brooklyn  every  conceivable  form  and  material  for  sewers  has  been  employed. 
The  oldest  sewers  are  little  else  than  rough,  rectangular,  stone  drains  with  poorly  paved 
bottoms.  Brick  is  largely  used  in  circular  sewer  sections,  but  vitrified  pipe,  cement 
pipe,  plain  and  reinforced  concrete  are  all  well  represented,  concrete  particularly  in 
some  of  the  recent  constructions. 

Jersey  City  has  several  large  riveted  steel  sewers  running  under  pressure  to  con- 
vey the  sewage  from  the  high  ground  over  the  cliffs  to  tide  water.  A  few  cast-iron 
sewers  are  also  used  in  that  city  under  similar  conditions  as  well  as  for  outfalls. 

Twin  sections  of  horse-shoe  or  rectangular  shape  are  used  in  many  places,  notably 
Manhattan,  The  Bronx,  Brooklyn  and  Newark,  the  largest  of  all  being  the  triple  sec- 
tion in  The  Bronx,  now  under  construction  and  consisting  of  a  central  opening  9  feet 
by  12  feet  and  two  side  openings  8  feet  by  10  feet  each,  discharging  into  the  East  river 
at  the  foot  of  Lafayette  avenue. 

While  not  the  largest,  the  East  One  Hundred  and  Tenth  street  and  East  Forty- 
ninth  street  sewers  in  Manhattan  probably  discharge  a  greater  quantity  of  domestic 
sewage  daily  than  any  other  two  in  the  metropolitan  district ;  the  South  Fifth  street 
and  the  Forty-ninth  street  sewers  in  Brooklyn  would  probably  come  next  in  order. 

But  all  these  large  sewers  sink  into  insignificance  in  comparison  with  the  proposed 
1'assaic  valley  sewer,  planned  ultimately  to  discharge  into  the  center  of  New  York  bay 
at  least  40  times  the  amount  of  house  sewage  discharged  daily  by  any  single  sewer  now 
entering  the  harbor. 

Ventilation.  In  practically  all  the  old  sewers  along  the  waterfront,  and  in  many 
of  the  newer  ones,  ventilation  is  deficient  and  consists  merely  of  the  drawing  of  air 
into  the  sewer  through  perforations  in  the  manhole  covers  and  its  expulsion  again 
through  the  same  perforations  laden  with  diluted  sewrer  air  in  accordance  with  changes 
in  temperature  and  volumes  of  sewage  flow.  No  provisions  are  made  in  the  older 
sewers  for  continuous  circulation  of  air  into  the  perforated  manhole  covers  and  out 
at  the  tops  of  the  houses  through  the  soil  pipes,  as  disconnecting  traps  are  almost 
universal  in  this  district.  With  the  ends  of  the  sewers  tide-locked,  or  closed  with  flap 
gates  to  prevent  the  wind  from  blowing  into  the  open  ends  the  air  in  the  sewers 
is  usually  foul,  particularly  in  the  lower  stretches.  When  coated  with  decom- 
posing sewage  and  grease  occasional  gusts  of  air  forced  out  by  changed  conditions  of 
pressure  within  the  sewer  are  generally  laden  with  these  odors.  The  condition  is 


94  SUMMARY    OP    INVESTIGATIONS 

much  aggravated  where  steam  is  allowed  to  enter,  or  where  illuminating  gas,  or  gaso- 
line or  other  volatile  fluids  escape  into  the  sewers. 

The  odors  are  usually  worse  from  the  manholes  near  the  waterfront  where  the  tide 
backs  up  into  the  sewers.  The  rising  and  falling  of  the  water  surface  twice  daily  dis- 
places and  draws  in  again  with  each  tide  a  volume  of  air  equivalent  to  the  tidal  prism 
within  the  sewer.  The  greater  quantity  of  this  air  escapes  through  the  perforations  of 
the  manhole  covers  in  the  portion  of  the  sewer  affected  by  tidal  influence. 

Fhishing  Arrangements.  In  Manhattan  sewers  are  cleaned  by  hand  when  the 
accumulations  make  this  necessary,  or  on  complaint  of  flooding.  There  are  no  flushing 
gates  in  the  system  and  no  flush  tanks.  The  only  flushing  the  sewers  receive  is  with 
a  hose,  -which  is  rarely  used.  The  same  general  statement  is  true  with  regard  to  all 
the  combined  sewers  within  the  territory  except  those  in  Hoboken.  The  Hobokeu 
sewers,  with  few  exceptions,  lie  so  low  and  have  sucli  flat  grades  that  to  prevent  too 
great  an  accumulation  of  sediment  in  their  inverts  sluice  gates  on  the  outlets  are 
lowered  and  raised  at  the  change  of  tides  by  service  gate  keepers,  thus,  in  a  measure 
securing  a  flushing  action. 

The  separate  sewers  in  several  of  the  districts,  notably  in  Westchester  County  and 
New  Jersey  have  flush  tanks  on  the  ends  of  lateral  sewers.  They  are  not  as  extensively 
used,  however,  as  desirable. 

Outlets.  In  Manhattan  intercepting  sewers  have  not  been  favored  as  against  inde- 
pendent outfalls  for  each  sewer.  It  is  believed  by  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  that  multi- 
plicity of  small  outlets  assures  better  dispersion  of  the  sewage  and  less  likelihood  of 
offensive  conditions  and  better  grades  for  the  outlet  sewers,  particularly  along  the 
streets  bordering  the  harbor.  Many  of  the  Manhattan  sewer  outlets  are  placed  so  low 
that  tides  back  up  in  them  for  great  distances.  The  older  sewers  which  originally 
discharged  at  the  bulkhead  line  have  mostly  been  extended  to  the  pierhead  line. 

In  Brooklyn  and  Queens  many  expanses  of  flat  land  with  reverse  slopes  make 
problems  of  sewerage  very  difficult.  In  the  older  section  of  Brooklyn  and  in  Long 
Island  City  sewers  discharge  at  the  bulkhead  at  the  foot  of  practically  every  street 
running  to  the  waterfront.  The  outlet  sewers  built  of  late  years  have  tended  more  to 
concentration  as  exemplified  'by  the  South  Fifth  street,  Sixty-fourth  and  Ninety- 
second  street  sewers  in  Brooklyn.  Queens  lias  no  established  policy  with  respect  to 
outlets  but  will  soon  be  compelled  to  consider  the  question. 

In  The  Bronx  the  grades  in  the  lowrer  portions  of  some  of  the  sewers  are  so  low 
that  high  water  backs  up  great  distances  causing  deposits  and  also  flooding  streets 
during  rainstorms  from  the  gorging  of  the  sewers.  Many  of  the  sewer  outlets  have  been 


MAINTENANCE  OF  SEWERS  95 

designed  with  capacities  far  in  excess  of  present  requirements  to  guard  against  similar 
experiences. 

In  Richmond  the  policy  is  to  discharge  the  storm  water  at  the  bulkhead  line  and 
carry  the  house  drainage  flow  in  a  small  pipe  out  to  the  pier  head  line. 

SECTION  III 
METHODS   OF   MAINTAINING   SEWERS 

In  Manhattan  the  sewers  are  inspected  arid  cleaned  only  on  complaint.  The  force 
is  insufficient  to  properly  maintain  the  system,  although  the  1909  results  were  far 
superior  to  those  of  previous  years  both  as  to  the  quality  of  work  done  and  the 
quantity  and  cost.  The  sewers  are  not  flushed  but  are  cleaned  by  hand  after  sludge 
accumulates  from  10  inches  to  20  inches  in  depth.  Street  sweepings  are  regularly 
pushed  into  the  basins  or  flushed  into  the  sewers,  against  orders,  by  the  employees  of 
the  Street  Cleaning  Department. 

Inspections  in  Brooklyn  are  also  only  made  on  complaint.  The  regular  cleaning 
force  is  said  to  be  sufficient  to  take  care  of  basins  and  small  sewers  but  not  of  the  large 
ones.  A  machine  has  been  perfected  for  cleaning  the  large  sewers.  Street  sweepings 
to  some  extent  go  into  the  basins  and  largely  increase  the  cost  of  cleaning.  The 
asphalt  streets  are  kept  fairly  clean;  but  there  are  many  rough  pavements  and 
macadam  roads  in  the  borough  from  which  dirt  washes  into  the  sewers. 

No  regular  sewer  inspections  are  made  in  Queens.  Distances  are  great  and  costs 
consequently  high.  The  force  seems  insufficient. 

In  The  Bronx  inspections  are  made  by  the  foremen  of  the  cleaning  gangs.  The 
cleaning  force  is  sufficient  except  during  large  falls  of  snow.  The  Brook  avenue  sewer 
needs  cleaning  very  urgently;  efforts  to  clean  it  with  the  regular  force  make  no  ap- 
parent reduction  in  the  amount  of  deposit  therein. 

Sewers  and  basins  are  regularly  and  effectively  inspected  and  cleaned  in  Rich- 
mond. Stoppages  rarely  occur.  The  water  in  the  catch  basins  is  pumped  out  by  the 
use  of  portable  centrifugal  pumps  to  facilitate  cleaning.  The  cleanings  from  basins 
near  the  garbage  incinerator  are  burned. 

Inspections  in  Jersey  City  are  not  regular,  although  the  cleaning  force  is  said  to 
be  sufficient.  Street  sweepings  are  not  supposed  to  be  pushed  into  basins.  Clean- 
ing many  of  the  sewers  can  only  be  done  at  low  tide. 

In  Hoboken  inspections  are  not  regularly  made;  the  sewers  are  cleaned  only 
when  they  fail  to  work. 


96  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

Inspections  are  not  regularly  made  in  Bayonne;  all  basins  are  cleaned  in  the 
spring  and  at  other  times  on  complaint.  The  force  is  not  sufficient. 

No  inspections  are  made  in  Elizabeth,  the  sewers  being  cleaned  at  varying  inter- 
vals of  time.  The  streets  are  kept  fairly  clean  and  the  sweepings  are  kept  out  of 
basins. 

In  Newark  the  cleaning  gangs,  which  are  said  to  be  sufficient,  have  sections  as- 
signed which  they  cover  with  regularity.  Sweepings  are  not  allowed  to  be  pushed 
into  basins.  Streets  are  kept  very  clean. 

In  Paterson  the  cleaning  of  sewers  is  not  carefully  done,  many  of  the  sewers 
being  partially  filled  with  deposits.  Many  manhole  heads  have  been  covered  by  pav- 
ing. 

The  Joint  outlet  sewer  is  under  the  supervision  of  two  regular  inspectors  who 
patrol  a  given  section  and  report  weekly  to  the  Chief  Engineer. 

SECTION  IV 
METHODS  OF  DISPOSING  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Purification  Plants.     The  cities  having  purification  plants  are  as  follows: 
Brooklyn : 

East  New  York  plant treating  daily  12,000,000  gallons  of  sewage 

Sheepshead  Bay  No.  4 treating  daily    1,750,000  gallons  of  sewage 

Coney  Island  No.  2 treating  daily    1,800,000  gallons  of  sewage 

Coney  Island  No.  3 treating  daily       700,000  gallons  of  sewage 

Queens : 

Jamaica  plant  treating  daily  1,500,000  gallons  of  sewage 

Far  Rockaway  plant treating  daily  600,000  gallons  of  sewage 

Elmhurst  plant  treating  daily  500,000  gallons  of  sewage 

White  Plains  plant treating  daily  1,000,000  gallons  of  sewage 

Tuckahoe  plant  treating  daily  200,000  gallons  of  sewage 

Bronxville  plant  treating  daily  100,000  gallons  of  sewage 

Mt.  Vernon  plant treating  daily  2,000,000  gallons  of  sewage 

New  Rochelle  plant treating  daily  700,000  gallons  of  sewage 

The  total  quantity  of  sewage  treated  at  these  12  plants  in  the  seven  different  cities 
amounts  to  between  22,000,000  and  23,000,000  gallons  daily. 

None  of  these  plants  except  that  at  Mt.  Vernon  is  modern  in  plan  or  design  or 
has  for  years  been  other  than  a  makeshift.  Complaints  have  been  lodged  with  the 
State  Board  of  Health  against  most  of  them  and  numerous  investigations  and  reports 
have  directed  public  attention  to  their  inefficiency  as  well  as  in  some  cases  to  the 
earlier  manner  of  the  operation. 


DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE  97 

The  effluents  of  all  the  chemical  precipitation  plants  in  the  above  list  are  little 
better  than  can  be  had  by  simple  subsidence  for  a  proper  length  of  time,  and  such  an 
effluent  will  be  in  a  putrescible  state  a  few  hours  after  leaving  the  plant.  As  a  result, 
the  waters  into  which  the  effluents  of  these  plants  are  discharged  are  uniformly  in  a 
foul  condition  during  the  summer  weather  and  frequently  so  at  other  seasons  of  the 
year. 

One  other  attempt  at  partial  purification  is  made  in  Brooklyn,  in  connection 
with  the  sewage  discharged  into  Paerdegat  channel.  A  screening  arrangement  and 
grit  chamber  remove  from  the  sewage  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  suspended 
matter.  This  is  regarded  by  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  of  Brooklyn  as  a  temporary  make- 
shift only,  and  in  fact  it  is  due  to  the  department  to  record  in  this  connection  that 
the  four  other  plants  are  inheritances  and  their  unsuitability,  unfitness  and  ineffi- 
ciency fully  realized  and  regretted.  Plans  have  been  made  for  new  plants  of 
modern  design  to  replace  the  four  now  in  service.  It  is  the  intention  to  build  a  new 
plant  at  East  New  York,  another  at  Paerdegat  basin,  a  third  at  Sheepshead  Bay  and 
a  fourth  at  Coney  Island.  The  locations  for  each  new  plant  except  that  at  Paer- 
degat basin  will  be  at  the  site  of  the  present  works.  The  location  for  the  Paerdegat 
plant  has  not  yet  been  definitely  selected. 

The  Coney  Island  plant  is  the  only  one  for  which  the  money  has  been  appropri- 
ated; plans  are  now  ready  for  the  work.  The  general  scheme  for  this  section  of 
Brooklyn  is  to  intercept  the  dry  weather  flow  in  all  the  sewers  draining  to  Coney 
Island  creek,  Sheepshead  bay  and  Jamaica  bay  and  purify  the  sewage  by  screening, 
settlement  in  hydrolitic  tanks,  sprinkling  filters  and  secondary  subsidence,  at  the 
nearest  one  of  the  four  plants  proposed,  before  discharging  into  the  water.  Sludge  is 
to  be  pumped  to  sludge  tanks  or  towed  out  to  sea. 

No  plans  have  so  far  been  announced  for  improving  the  conditions  with  respect 
to  sewage  purification  at  the  Jamaica  plant  in  Queens  County,  nor  the  Elmhurst 
plant  where  it  is  said  a  significant  portion  of  the  sewage  leaks  out  through  the  bot- 
tom instead  of  passing  through  the  plant  properly. 

The  plants  at  Bronxville,  Tuckahoe  and  White  Plains,  it  is  assumed,  will  be 
done  away  with  when  the  Bronx  valley  sewer,  now  under  construction,  is  com- 
pleted. 

The  Mt.  Vernon  plant  is  practically  completed  but  not  yet  in  operation ;  it  should 
be  a  great  improvement  over  any  of  the  existing  plants,  but  time  only  can  tell 
whether  or  not  its  operation  will  be  conducted  with  that  care  and  intelligence  neces- 
sary to  insure  a  continuance  of  good  results. 


98  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

f 

Disposal  into  Adjacent  Waters.  In  ten  of  the  cities  in  the  metropolitan  sew- 
erage district  with  a  population  of  4,484,000,  sewage  amounting  to  400,000,000  gallons 
daily  is  discharged  into  the  neighboring  tidal  waters  without  purification  of  any  sort. 

In  25  of  the  cities,  with  a  population  of  479,000,  sewage  amounting  to  at  least 
30,000,000  gallons  daily  is  discharged  into  neighboring  fresh  water  streams  of  rela- 
tively small  size  and  without  purification. 

All  the  larger  cities,  except  Paterson,  are  on  tidal  waters  and  discharge  the 
greater  part  of  their  sewage  therein  through  combined  sewers  without  treatment. 

The  effluents  from  all  the  so-called  purification  plants  discharge  into  nearby 
water  courses  or  tidal  estuaries. 

The  most  important  fact  shown  by  a  study  of  the  outlet  conditions  of  the  sewers 
around  the  harbor  waters  is  the  almost  universal  prevalence  of  nuisances  in  their 
immediate  vicinity,  and  the  extensive  evidences  of  pollution,  offensive  to  the  eye, 
even  though  not  to  the  olfactory  sense,  in  practically  every  portion  of  the  harbor 
from  Throgs  Neck  to  the  Narrows,  and  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rahway  river  to  Spuy- 
ten  Duyvil  creek. 

In  Manhattan  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  does  not  admit  that  the  discharge  of  sewage 
at  the  pierheads  causes  any  nuisance.  It  is  held  by  the  Bureau  that  the  dumping 
of  garbage  from  boats,  and  litter  from  piers,  greatly  exceeds  in  its  offense  to 
vision  the  pollution  due  to  sewage.  While  there  may  not  be  direct  and  visible  injury 
to  the  public  health  from  breathing  air  laden  with  the  effluvia  of  fresli  or  decom- 
posing sewage  the  practice  which  leads  to  this  result  is  insanitary  and  should  be 
abolished.  The  placing  of  floating  bathing  establishments  near  sewers,  as  well  as  the 
washing  of  the  shores  of  bathing  beaches  with  sewage,  is  a  decided  nuisance  and 
menace  to  the  health  of  the  patrons  thereof.  The  present  popular  conception  of  a 
nuisance  is  undoubtedly  more  strict  than  it  has  been  in  the  past,  and  it  seems  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  future  sanitary  requirements  will  establish  higher  standards 
than  now  prevail.  The  bathing  of  the  shores  of  Manhattan  Island  with  the  raw 
sewage  of  its  estimated  3,800,000  inhabitants  in  1940  would  no  doubt  be  considered 
a  very  great  nuisance  at  that  time. 

Gowanus  canal  and  Newtown  creek  are  the  worst  points  of  pollution  in  Brook- 
lyn. The  discharge  of  raw  sewage  into  Jamaica  bay  is  prohibited  by  the  State  Board 
of  Health  but  this  is  distinctly  violated  by  the  discharge  into  Paerdegat  basin  of  the 
raw  sewage  from  three  large  sewers.  The  disposal  plants  at  East  New  York, 
and  Jamaica  offer  no  protection  to  the  shellfish  industry  of  Jamaica  bay  but  on  the 
contrary  often  give  a  false  sense  of  security. 


DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE  99 

Jamaica  bay  receives  the  effluent  from  the  Jamaica  and  Far  Rockaway  plants 
in  addition  to  the  sewage  discharged  by  private  sewers  from  the  remaining  portions 
of  the  Rockaways. 

A  large  sewer  at  Fifth  avenue  and  Tenth  street  in  College  Point  discharges  at 
the  bulkhead  and  causes  a  nuisance  in  that  portion  of  Flushing  bay.  The  pollution 
of  Newtown  creek  is  said  to  be  mainly  due  to  manufacturing  wastes. 

The  Harlem  river  is  polluted  from  end  to  end  by  the  sewers  of  The  Bronx,  but 
little  complaint  is  heard  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  surroundings. 

No  complaints  of  nuisances  are  made  in  Richmond,  although  the  shores  are  in 
places  in  a  filthy  condition. 

Penhorn  creek  is  badly  polluted  by  the  sewage  of  Jersey  City,  and  has  been  com- 
plained of  to  the  State  Board  of  Health.  The  Newark  bay  outlets  are  complained  of 
by  Bayonne.  Mill  creek  in  the  heart  of  Jersey  City  is  made  up  entirely  of  sewage. 
The  sewer  outlets  into  the  Hudson  river  are  at  the  bulkhead  line  and  pollute  the 
water  of  the  slips  so  that  the  ferry  boats  and  steamers  are  docked  in  it. 

The  Hudson  river  outlet  conditions  in  Hoboken  are  the  same  as  at  Jersey  City. 
Emphatic  complaints  have  been  made  by  the  steamship  companies. 

Complaints  by  Bayonne  against  sewer  outlets  into  Newark  bay  have  resulted,  in 
three  instances,  in  carrying  the  dry  weather  flow  in  small  cast  iron  pipes  out  to  deep 
water.  Bayonne  is  opposed  to  any  further  pollution  of  Newark  bay. 

Complaints  and  agitation  in  Elizabeth  have  resulted  in  the  construction  of  an  in- 
terceptor skirting  the  Elizabeth  river  to  carry  away  all  of  the  house  drainage  now 
emptying  into  it.  The  odors  from  the  river  in  warm  weather  were  unbearable.  No 
complaints  are  made  of  sewage  emptying  into  Kill  van  Kull,  although  it  is  recog- 
nized that  the  time  will  come  when  this  pollution  will  have  to  cease. 

The  relief  from  pollution  of  the  Passaic  by  Newark,  Passaic,  Paterson  and  other 
cities  on  its  banks  is  now  and  has  been  the  object  for  which  the  Passaic  Valley 
Sewerage  Commission  has  been  working  almost  continuously  for  eight  years. 

The  Railway  river  is  badly  polluted  and  many  complaints  are  made  by  residents 
along  its  banks  particularly  in  Cranford.  Shellfish  are  killed  in  the  lower  stretches 
of  the  river  by  the  pollution. 

SECTION  V 
FAULTS  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  SYSTEMS 

Tide-Locked  Sewers.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  policy  of  the  bureaus  of  sewers  of 
all  the  municipalities  bordering  on  New  York  harbor  to  place  the  outlets  of  the  sew- 
ers so  low  as  to  be  submerged  at  high  tide,  and  in  some  cases  at  mean  tide.  Attention 


100  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

has  been  called  to  Col.  Julius  W.  Adams'  comment  on  this  practice  and  its  evil  con- 
sequences as  long  ago  as  1880.  Two  ideas  seem  to  have  been  considered  in  following 
this  plan,  the  first  being  to  give  the  sewer  bottom  as  much  slope  as  possible  in  the  belief 
that  the  bottom  slope  controlled  the  velocity  of  flow  in  the  sewers  (a  principle  followed 
in  designing  by  the  Brooklyn  Bureau  of  Sewers  until  changed  in  1907  by  the  present 
Chief  Engineer,  Mr.  E.  J.  Fort)  ;  and  the  other  that  the  wind  blowing  in  the  open  ends 
of  the  sewers  drove  the  foul  air  up  into  the  streets  through  the  perforations  in  the 
manhole  covers. 

The  extent  to  which  this  practice  was  carried  in  early  times  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  Brook  avenue  sewer  in  The  Bronx,  in  which  high  tide  level  meets  the  bottom  of  the 
sewer  two  miles  from  the  outlet. 

In  some  of  the  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn  sewers  the  conditions  almost  find  a 
parallel.  In  order  to  show  the  extent  of  this  evil  a  diagram  was  prepared  show- 
ing two  contour  lines,  one  marked  0,  which  indicates  the  distances  in  from  the 
shore  that  mean  high  tide  reaches  in  all  the  principal  sewers  of  Manhattan,  The 
Bronx  and  Brooklyn,  and  the  other  marked  +2.0,  showing  the  distance  that  a  tide  two 
feet  higher  than  normal,  and  such  as  not  infrequently  occurs,  would  reach.  It  was 
seen  that  in  approximately  20  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  Manhattan  the  sewage  is  backed 
up  by  the  tides  and  the  deposition  of  silt  and  solids  favored  by  the  checked  velocities. 

This  feature  of  the  sewers  to  a  large  extent  is  the  cause  of  much  of  the  objection- 
able odors  emanating  from  the  manholes  along  the  water  front  and  in  the  low  districts. 
The  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  not  only  drives  out  all  the  foul  air  contained  in  the  sewers, 
but  causes  the  sides  of  the  sewers  to  become  coated  with  congealed  grease  and  sewage, 
in  some  cases,  as  revealed  by  inspections  made  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commis- 
sion, fully  a  foot  in  thickness.  In  the  Brook  avenue  sewer  the  deposits  in  the  two 
mile  stretch  at  the  lower  end  are  so  extensive,  and  the  quantity  of  detritus  washed  into 
the  sewer  at  the  street  inlets  so  considerable  that  the  cleaning  gang  makes  no  measur- 
able reduction  in  the  depth  of  the  mud,  although  working  practically  continuously  at 
cleaning. 

Improper  Sizes.  It  is  but  natural  that  sewers  built  years  ago  to  serve  the  residen- 
tial or  suburban  districts  of  the  cities  should,  as  these  cities  grow  and  as  the  im- 
pervious areas  such  as  pavements  and  roofs  increase,  gradually  manifest  their 
inability  to  take  care  of  the  increasing  quantities  of  sewage  and  storm  water,  and 
eventually  become  nuisances  by  causing  the  flooding  of  cellars  and  streets  even  during 
comparatively  small  storms.  Many  such  sewers  exist  to-day,  and  many  districts  which 
have  suffered  from  floods  of  this  kind  have  been  relieved  by  the  reconstruction  of  the 
sewers,  the  construction  of  additional  sewers  in  the  same  streets,  or  the  diversion  of 


FAULTS  OF  SEWERS  101 

the  sewage  to  other  so-called  relief  sewers  arranged  to  take  the  overflow  from  the  original 
sewers  and  discharge  it  at  other  outfalls. 

Manhattan  and  Richmond  have  suffered  less  from  this  evil  than  Brooklyn,  The 
Bronx,  Queens,  Jersey  City  and  Newark,  owing  to  the  relative  shortness  of  the  sewers 
in  the  first  two  mentioned  municipalities.  The  floods  in  Manhattan  have  usually  been 
located  near  the  water  front  and  have  been  caused  by  the  choking  of  the  sewers  with 
deposits  and  by  rains  occurring  at  times  of  high  tides. 

In  Brooklyn  the  troubles  have  arisen  in  many  cases  by  the  continuous  addition  of 
new  territory  to  districts  served  by  sewers  already  too  small. 

The  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer  is  an  interesting  example  of  this.  Originally  built  to 
relieve  sewers  principally  in  the  Bedford  district  it  was  extended  to  take  in  a  much 
larger  territory.  The  building  up  of  this  area  resulted  in  the  gorging  of  the  sewer  at 
every  rain ;  and  now  two  additional  relief  sewers,  one  already  built  and  another  planned 
(but  not  constructed  owing  to  the  holding  up  of  the  appropriations),  each  of  a  capa- 
city in  excess  of  the  original  sewer  are  provided  for  its  relief. 

Queens  has  as  yet  suffered  relatively  little  inconvenience  from  these  causes,  being, 
outside  of  Long  Island  City  and  a  few  small  districts  around  College  Point,  Jamaica 
and  Elmhurst,  essentially  a  cesspool  district.  But  the  rapid  development  that  will 
shortly  follow  as  a  result  of  transportation  and  business  interests  now  contemplated 
and  under  way  will  bring  to  this  borough  burdens  for  sewerage  that  will  be  relatively 
as  heavy  as  for  any  other  section  of  equal  area  within  the  metropolitan  district. 

In  The  Bronx  heavy  expenses  have  already  been  incurred  for  relief  sewers  to  help 
out  the  older  ones— the  Webster  avenue  relief  tunnel  and  the  Truxton  street  relief 
sewer  being  the  principal  ones.  Eventually  another  sewer  of  about  the  same  dimen- 
sions as  the  Webster  avenue  (or  Brook  avenue)  sewer  will  have  to  parallel  the  present 
sewer,  in  spite  of  the  construction  of  the  relief  tunnel.  Similarly,  all  the  other  big 
sewers  in  that  district  will  ultimately  have  to  be  duplicated,  when  the  population  in- 
creases to  the  limits  already  reached  in  Harlem. 

Newark  is  a  well  sewered  city,  with  little  room  for  further  general  improvements. 
Few  troubles  are  experienced  with  flooding  from  sewers,  except  in  the  low  southern 
portion.  One  territory  which  until  recently  had  given  some  trouble  has  been  relieved 
by  diverting  part  of  the  storm  flow  from  the  Rector  street  sewer  to  the  new  central  re- 
lief sewer. 

In  Jersey  City  most  of  the  troubles  from  small  sewers  have  been  on  the  high 
lands  instead  of  along  the  water  front,  and  it  is  to  rectify  these  that  the  steel  and 
cast  iron  sewers,  running  under  pressure  were  built. 


102  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

Condition  of  the  Sewers.  In  all  the  annual  reports  of  the  bureaus  of  sewers  in  the 
different  municipalities  mention  is  made  of  repairs  that  have  been  necessary  to  existing 
sewers  and  of  reconstruction  work  that  has  been  done  or  that  will  become  necessary  in 
order  to  properly  take  care  of  the  drainage  from  different  districts.  Chief  Engineer 
Loomis  estimates  that  there  are  approximately  55  miles  of  old  sewers  in  New  York  at 
the  present  time  that  will  require  building,  and  much  work  of  this  nature  is  necessary 
in  Brooklyn,  and  soon  will  be  necessary  in  The  Bronx.  The  principal  conditions  re- 
quiring reconstruction  of  sewers  are  their  breaking  by  the  settlement,  of  the 
ground  along  the  water  front,  the  destruction  of  the  mortar  joints  in  the  sewers 
by  steam,  acids  and  gases,  allowing  the  crowns  to  settle,  the  interference  with  the 
grades  of  sewers  by  the  construction  of  subways,  the  readjustment  of  grades  made  nec- 
essary by  the  establishment  of  dock  lines  and  pierhead  lines  in  some  cases  considerable 
distances  out  into  the  stream  from  the  original  shore  line,  the  necessity  either  for  a 
duplication  or  a  reconstruction  of  a  sewer  in  order  to  provide  for  greater  storm  flows  and 
relieve  flooded  districts,  and  other  less  prominent  causes. 

Recent  Inspection.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  physical  condition  of  the  sewers  of 
Manhattan  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  has,  with  the  co-operation  of  the 
Bureau  of  Sewers  and  the  Borough  President,  made  a  careful  inspection  of  many  of 
the  sewers. 

In  a  general  way  these  inspections  have  disclosed  some  facts  of  considerable  inter- 
est. Taken  as  a  whole,  the  sewers  appear  to  be  in  a  fair  condition,  there  being  a  few 
exceptions  to  this  rule.  In  some  sewers  have  been  found  distorted  shapes,  worn  out 
inverts,  sunken  arches,  cracks  due  to  settlement,  and  in  some  places  irregular  holes 
broken  through  in  the  making  of  connections  to  the  sewer,  which  holes  were  never 
properly  repaired. 

Certain  sewers  it  was  impossible  to  enter  for  inspection,  owing  to  the  heat  from 
steam  and  the  hot  water  escaping  from  neighboring  buildings.  Other  sewers  could 
not  be  entered  on  account  of  the  presence  of  illuminating  gas  in  such  quantities  as 
to  make  inspections  dangerous  or  impossible;  in  other  areas  lanterns  could  not  be 
carried  into  the  sewer  to  permit  inspections  on  account  of  the  gasoline  vapor  pre- 
sumably from  automobile  garages  or  other  establishments  using  gasoline  and  naphtha. 

Deposits  on  Sides  and  Bottoms  of  Sewers.  Most  of  the  sewers  the  mouths  of  which 
are  tide-locked  and  the  bottoms  of  which  lie  below  high  tide  were  found  to  contain 
considerable  amounts  of  deposits  of  silt  and  sewage  solids  forming  as  a  rule  a  dense 
deposit  difficult  to  remove  without  the  use  of  tools.  In  neighborhoods  where  con- 
siderable amounts  of  grease  escape  with  the  sewage  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides  has 
coated  the  sides  and  tops  of  the  sewers  with  congealed  grease  in  some  cases  as  much 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIFFICULTIES  103 

as  a  foot  in  thickness.  In  the  sewers  where  steam  and  hot  water  entered  the  odors 
from  the  cooked  sewage  are  unusually  disagreeable. 

Such  sewers  can  not  be  properly  taken  care  of ;  it  reflects  no  discredit  upon  the 
Bureau  of  Sewers  to  have  found  them  in  such  condition  with  the  limited  means  avail- 
able to  the  department  for  the  maintenance  or  cleaning  of  the  sewers.  It  is  doubtful 
if  with  any  practicable  maintenance  force  the  sewers  along  the  water  front  of  Manhat- 
tan could  be  kept  clean. 

In  Brooklyn  and  in  The  Bronx  the  conditions  are  not  much  better  excepting  that 
there  are  fewer  sewer  outlets  in  these  two  boroughs  than  in  Manhattan,  and  conse- 
quently there  is  a  smaller  total  mileage  of  sewers  subject  to  tide-locking. 

Administrative  Difficulties.  In  Manhattan  the  sewers  are  maintained  and  cleaned 
under  the  direction  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers.  His  men  clean  the 
catch  basins  and  the  sewers  and  dispose  of  the  cleanings.  A  considerable  proportion  of 
the  dirt  which  finds  its  way  into  the  sewers  in  Manhattan  goes  in  through  the  catch 
basins,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  the  street  cleaners  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Department  of  Street  Cleaning,  in  order  to  lighten  somewhat  their 
labors,  are  accustomed  to  pushing  the  street  cleanings  into  the  catch  basins,  thus  allow- 
ing these  to  be  washed  into  the  sewer  for  removal  by  the  sewer  cleaning  gang.  This 
practice  is  not  supposed  to  be  allowed  and  is  punishable  by  a  fine  upon  conviction,  but 
it  is  stated  by  the  Department  of  Sewers  that  the  magistrates  practically  never  convict 
any  of  the  cases  which  are  brought  before  them  by  the  Department  of  Sewers.  The 
same  remarks  apply  to  Brooklyn. 

In  The  Bronx  a  complication  arises  from  the  arrangement  by  which  the  sewers  are 
built  under  the  supervision  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers,  but  a  large  number  of  the  catch 
basins,  particularly  in  the  district  east  of  the  Bronx,  have  been  built  and  connected 
to  the  sewers  by  the  Bureau  of  Highways.  The  basins  are  turned  over  to  the  Bureau 
of  Sewers  to  maintain  when  connected.  Everything  goes  into  the  basins  just  the  same  as 
in  the  Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn.  The  ordinances  against  the  dumping  of 
snow,  street  sweepings  and  other  refuse  into  the  catch  basins  and  sewers  is  as  much  of 
a  dead  letter  in  The  Bronx  as  in  the  other  boroughs. 

This  should  be  corrected  as  it  permits  the  workmen  of  one  bureau  to  saddle  upon 
another  bureau  the  expense  of  the  work  they  are  supposed  to  do,  and  further  than  this 
to  put  upon  the  City  an  extra  expense  for  the  reason  that  it  is  much  more  expensive 
to  take  deposits  out  of  sewers  by  hand  than  it  is  to  remove  them  from  the  surface  of 
the  street  and  place  them  in  the  carts  of  the  Street  Cleaning  Department. 

Were  the  sewers  of  the  cities  in  the  districts  so  laid  that  they  would  have  self-clean- 
ing velocities,  then  catch  basins  could  be  dispensed  with  and  all  the  street  detritus 


104  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

be  washed  into  the  sewer  in  the  process  of  washing  the  streets.  Under  existing  condi- 
tions, however,  the  dirt  that  is  washed  into  the  catch  basins  is  practically  all  carried 
into  the  sewers,  and  some  of  this  escapes  into  the  harbor  and  some  of  it  remains  in 
the  sewer.  That  which  washes  into  the  harbor  is  as  a  rule  removed  at  small  expense 
by  dredging,  but  that  which  remains  in  the  sewer  is  removed  only  at  relatively  great 
expense. 

In  some  districts,  as  for  instance  on  City  Island,  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  has  never 
built  any  sewers,  those  which  discharge  now  at  the  foot  of  nearly  every  street  on  the 
island  having  been  built  either  by  the  Bureau  of  Highways  or  by  private  persons,  and 
such  sewers  represent  usually  a  waste  of  money,  as  they  are  seldom  of  the  right  size, 
generally  poorly  laid  out  and  almost  universally  inefficient  and  unsuitable  to  fit  in  a 
properly  designed  system  looking  to  future  requirements. 

The  Public  Service  Commission,  under  the  terms  of  the  law  giving  it  existence, 
has  the  right  to  interfere  with  and  reconstruct  all  sewers  met  with  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  subways,  ill  New  York,  but  are  supposed  to  file  notice  with  the  Bureau  of 
Sewers  before  undertaking  such  changes,  and  the  changes  are  supposed  to  be  made 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers.  As  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  trouble  experienced  in  Manhattan  in  this  connection.  The  Public  Service  Com- 
missions' executives  frequently  make  changes  without  notification  to  the  Bureau  of 
Sewers,  sometimes  the  changes  being  of  very  significant  proportions  and  affect- 
ing seriously  the  sewerage  conditions  of  the  districts  involved.  The  principal  mat- 
ters in  which  the  interference  affects  the  sewers  is  in  the  changes  of  grade  and  eleva- 
tion necessary  to  accommodate  subway  construction.  In  some  cases  the  slopes  of 
large  sewers  have  been  taken  completely  out  for  considerable  distances,  converting 
these  sewers  through  those  stretches  into  sewers  of  deposit,  owing  to  the  absence  of 
sufficient  velocity  in  these  flat  stretches  to  carry  the  solids  in  suspension. 

Improper  Methods  of  Discharging  the  Sewage  Into  the  Harbor.  When  The  City  of 
New  York  was  considerably  smaller  than  it  is,  and  when  consequently  the  quantity  of 
sewage  discharged  from  the  various  sewers  was  smaller,  it  was  undoubtedly  good  policy 
to  discharge  the  sewage  at  many  points  in  small  quantities  rather  than  to  concentrate  it 
in  large  quantities  at  single  points.  Conditions  now,  however,  have  changed  in  this  re- 
spect, the  quantity  of  sewage  discharged  from  each  sewer  along  the  entire  waterfront 
of  Manhattan  being  sufficient  to  surround  the  city  with  a  field  of  sewage  next  the  shore. 
On  flood  tides  this  sewage  is  crowded  shoreward  under  the  piers  and  wharves  and  in 
the  ferry  slips  and  steamship  docks. 


r 

'      OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


SUMMARY    OF    EXISTING    CONDITIONS  105 

SECTION  VI 
FUTUEE  PLANS  OF  LOCAL  AUTHORITIES 

Disposal.  In  the  construction  problems  which  have  already  been  solved  in  most  of 
the  municipalities  bordering  New  York  harbor  and  the  adjacent  waters  the  city 
authorities  have  foreseen  difficulties  of  like  nature  requiring  solution  in  the  future. 
The  problems  in  Manhattan  are  different  from  those  in  the  other  boroughs,  in  that  they 
are  not  due  to  inherent  defects  or  lack  of  capacity  of  the  existing  sewers,  out  to  inter- 
ference with  these  sewers  in  making  arrangements  to  provide  improved  rapid  transit 
facilities.  ' 

The  officials  of  the  present  Bureau  of  Sewers  consider  that  the  sewage  of  Manhat- 
tan requires  no  different  treatment  for  its  disposal  than  its  discharge  into  the  sur- 
rounding tidal  waters  at  numerous  points,  as  is  done  at  present;  no  plans,  therefore, 
have  been  considered  by  the  borough  contemplating  any  change  in  this  method,  further 
than  to  extend  the  sewer  outfalls  from  the  bulkhead  line  to  the  pierhead  line  as  rapidly 
as  funds  and  circumstances  will  permit. 

In  Brooklyn  it  is  fully  realized  that,  on  account  of  the  rule  of  the  Department  of 
Health  prohibiting  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  Jamaica  bay,  and  for  the  further  con- 
sideration that  the  south  shore  of  Brooklyn  is  lined  with  bathing  beaches  and  summer 
resorts,  the  area  draining  toward  the  south  and  lying  east  of  Gravesend  bay  will  always 
have  to  be  treated  in  some  special  manner,  either  by  collecting  it  at  certain  points  and 
pumping  it  out  to  sea,  or  by  concentrating  it  at  certain  convenient  points  for  purifica- 
tion, the  effluent  to  be  discharged  into  the  nearest  available  body  of  water.  With  this  in 
mind  the  Superintendent  of  Sewers  and  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Bureau  visited  the 
principal  sewage  disposal  works  abroad  and  also  several  of  the  important  works  in 
this  country,  and  after  due  study  recommended  the  construction  of  four  purification 
plants  for  the  treatment  of  the  sewage  of  the  portion  of  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn  re- 
ferred to.  Plans  have  been  drawn  and  the  authorization  secured  for  the  construction 
of  one  of  these  plants  which  is  to  be  located  near  Coney  Island.  One  of  the  proposed 
new  plants  would  be  located  at  the  site  of  the  present  purification  plant  south  of  East 
New  York,  the  second  would  be  located  near  Paerdegat  basin,  the  exact  site  not  having 
yet  been  definitely  located ;  the  third  plant  would  be  located  at  the  site  of  the  present 
disposal  works  at  Sheepshead  Bay.  These  plants  would  be  provided  with  hydrolitic 
tanks  of  two,  four,  six  or  eight  hours'  capacity,  from  which  the  sewage  would  pass  to 
a  regulating  house  for  delivery  under  pressure  to  a  system  of  sprinkling  filters.  The 
effluent  from  the  sprinkling  filters  would  flow  by  gravity  into  settling  tanks  of  about 
an  hour's  capacity,  and  thence  to  the  canal.  The  sludge  would  be  pumped  to  sludge 


106  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

beds  or  else  direct  to  scows  to  be  towed  to  sea.  All  three  plants  would  be  of  the 
same  type,  and  if  properly  constructed  and  operated  would  give  an  effluent  satisfac- 
tory in  appearance  and  one  which  would  not  putrefy  after  discharge  into  the  nearby 
waters.  The  construction  of  none  of  the  plants  has  been  authorized,  excepting  the  one 
at  the  Coney  Island  site. 

To  get  rid  of  the  nuisance  in  Gowanus  bay  and  Gowanus  canal  caused  by  the 
discharge  into  the  head  of  this  canal  of  the  15-foot  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer,  as  well 
as  numerous  smaller  sanitary  and  storm  sewers,  a  flushing  tunnel  12  feet  in  diameter 
has  been  constructed  from  the  canal  to  the  harbor,  and  a  large  pump  is  to  be  installed 
to  pump  the  canal  water  through  the  tunnel  to  the  Buttermilk  channel,  thereby  im- 
proving the  condition  of  Gowanus  canal. 

In  Queens  it  is  recognized  that  difficult  problems  are  ahead  owing  to  tne  relatively 
small  waterfront  as  compared  with  the  total  area  of  the  'borough.  A  plan  has  been 
proposed  for  taking  care  of  the  sewage  of  the  western  portion  of  Jamaica,  and  the 
territory  lying  adjacent  thereto  and  adjoining  Brooklyn,  by  constructing  a  separate 
system  of  sewers  leading  to  the  Jamaica  purification  plant  with  storm  water  sewers 
discharging  into  one  of  the  estuaries  of  Jamaica  bay.  This  plan,  however,  has  never 
taken  definite  form. 

For  the  Flushing  district  a  plan  has  been  proposed  for  treating  the  sewage  of 
the  Ingleside  district  by  sedimentation  and  screening,  the  effluent  to  be  discharged  into 
Flushing  creek. 

For  the  district  between  Flushing  and  Long  Island  City,  including  Corona,  Elm- 
hurst  and  Woodside,  it  is  proposed  to  construct  a  large  trunk  sewer  leading  to  a  point 
of  discharge  into  Hell  Gate  and  intercepting  the  proposed  Theodore  street  sewer. 
This  plan  if  carried  out  would  obviate  the  necessity  for  operating  a  purification  plant 
at  Elmhurst;  but  it  is  realized  that  the  properties  which  will  have  to  be  assessed  for 
the  construction  of  this  very  expensive  sewer  would  protest  against  the  assumption  of 
the  burden  at  the  present  time. 

In  Richmond  the  separate  system  is  pretty  largely  used,  and  most  of  the  outfalls 
of  the  separate  sewers  are  extended  out  to  the  pierhead  line,  while  the  storm  sewers 
discharge  at  the  bulkhead  line.  It  is  felt,  owing  to  the  considerable  pollution  of  the 
Kill  van  Kull  water  and  to  the  tendency  of  this  polluted  water  to  sweep  toward  the 
Staten  Island  shore  and  crowd  the  local  sewage  back  landward,  that  some  day  a  more 
satisfactory  and  more  sanitary  method  of  disposing  of  the  sewage  must  be  devised. 
While  not  actually  preparing  plans  for  such  a  contingency  the  matter  is  at  present 
discussed  in  the  light  of  one  of  two  possibilities:  either  to  collect  the  sewage  by 
means  of  intercepting  sewers  and  deliver  it  at  convenient  points  for  purification  or 


FUTURE  LOCAL  PLANS  107 

put  in  pumping  stations  and  intercepting  sewers  and  provide  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
sewage  through  a  force  main  to  deep  water  in  the  ocean  to  the  east  of  Staten  Island. 

Notice  has  been  given  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  Jersey  City  and  Bergen 
to  stop  the  pollution  of  the  Hackensack  river  and  Penhorn  creek,  and  if  this  notice 
is  properly  complied  with  it  will  probably  involve  some  form  of  purification  of  the  sew- 
age as  it  will  be  impracticable  to  collect  the  sewage  of  these  two  cities  and  pump  it 
back  to  the  Hudson  for  disposal,  the  cost  of  purification  undoubtedly  being  less,  all 
things  considered.  There  are  no  signs  at  present  that  anything  is  contemplated  in  the 
matter  of  purification  in  Jersey  City. 

The  Kill  van  Kull  now  receives  a  very  large  amount  of  sewage  and  with  the  further 
and  probably  extensive  development  and  settlement  of  the  Eahway  and  Elizabeth  river 
valleys  the  time  will  come  when  it  will  'be  necessary  to  treat  in  whole  or  in  part  the 
sewage  discharged  therein.  This  possibility  has  been  appreciated  by  both  Elizabeth  and 
the  commissioners  of  the  Joint  outlet  sewer,  and  it  is  understood  that  when  the  time 
comes  for  the  construction  of  the  purification  plant  Elizabeth  and  the  Joint  outlet 
sewer  authorities  will  combine  for  the  purification  of  the  sewage  of  all  the  interested 
communities  at  a  centrally  located  purification  plant.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  permis- 
sion granted  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  for  the  construction  of  the  Joint  outlet 
sewer  was  based  on  the  provision  "  that  should  future  exigencies  make  treatment 
necessary,  it  would  be  required." 

Newark,  Paterson,  Passaic  and  the  other  municipalities  in  the  Passaic  valley  be- 
low Great  Falls  at  Paterson  are  looking  to  the  construction  of  the  Passaic  valley 
sewer  to  solve  their  sewage  disposal  question.  In  order  to  make  the  Passaic  valley 
project  attractive  to  Paterson,  the  cost  of  construction  and  operation  of  the  Passaic 
valley  scheme  must  be  less  than  the  cost  would  be  to  Paterson  of  purifying  her  own 
sewage  independently  of  the  other  communities. 

Should  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  not  be  constructed,  or  should  its  construction 
and  the  subsequent  purification  of  the  sewage  involve  too  great  an  expense,  Newark 
would  still  be  able  to  purify  her  own  sewage  on  land  adjacent  to  Newark  bay  by  mak- 
ing some  slight  changes  in  her  collection  system  and  locating  a  purification  plant  on 
the  meadows  not  far  from  the  present  pumping  station  of  the  interceptor. 

Cranford  and  Rahway  have  both  been  notified  to  stop  the  pollution  of  the  Rahway 
river  by  November  1st,  1911,  and  both  towns,  therefore,  are  facing  the  possibility  of 
the  construction  of  purification  works. 

While  at  the  present  time  quite  extensive  plans  are  being  made  for  the  sewerage 
of  the  Borough  of  The  Bronx,  particularly  with  reference  to  that  portion  of  the 
borough  lying  east  of  the  Bronx  river,  the  time  is  unquestionably  coming  when  the  dry 


108  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

weather  flow  of  sewage  from  The  Bronx  will  require  treatment  before  discharge  into 
the  Harlem,  the  East  river  or  Long  Island  Sound.  No  plans  have  been  outlined  for 
taking  care  of  the  sewage  of  this  district  other  than  to  discharge  it  into  tide  water  as 
at  present. 

Improvement  in  Sewerage  Systems.  The  development  of  rapid  transit  facilities  in 
Manhattan  has  necessitated  making  plans  for  the  construction  of  several  additional 
subways  running  through  the  city  from  north  to  south  on  several  avenues.  Certain 
of  these  lines  will  be  located  on  streets  not  far  from  and  parallel  to  the  Eludson  and 
East  rivers,  and  their  elevations  will  be  such  as  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  present 
sewers. 

The  Public  Service  Commission  having  the  right  to  alter  and  rebuild  sewers  inter- 
fered with  by  the  construction  of  subways  will,  by  the  time  these  various  subway  lines 
have  been  completed,  have  practically  rebuilt  the  sewerage  system  of  Manhattan  as 
a  repair  job.  That  is,  as  each  subway  is  built  it  would  be  necessary  to  take  up,  move, 
lower,  or  raise  practically  every  sewer  interfered  with  and  to  extend  such  reconstruc- 
tion work  as  is  undertaken  in  this  connection  a  sufficient  distance  each  way  from  the 
subway  to  provide  satisfactory  slopes  for  the  sewers  interfered  with.  If  only  one  or 
two  subways  were  to  be  built  this  would  not  be  a  serious  matter;  but  should  six  or  eight 
subway  lines  traverse  the  city  from  north  to  south  the  sewerage  system  would  be  cut  up 
into  a  num'ber  of  short  pieces,  with  numerous  inverted  siphons.  The  expense  of  mak- 
ing these  changes  which,  in  the  end  would  leave  a  patched-up,  inefficient  system 
would  probably  be  in  excess  of  entirely  reconstructing  the  system,  where  interfered 
with  by  subway  construction. 

Having  this  in  mind,  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  of  Manhattan 
has  recommended  that  the  sewerage  system  in  the  downtown  district  of  New  York 
be  reconstructed  as  soon  as  practicable  on  the  separate  system,  taking  -the  storm 
water  sewers  over  the  tops  of  the  proposed  subways. 

Mr.  Rudolph  Hering  in  a  report  to  the  President  of  the  Borough  of  Manhattan 
under  date  of  April  21,  1908,  after  an  examination  of  the  plans  for  the  proposed  sub- 
ways recommended  the  making  of  the  necessary  preliminary  studies  for  readjusting 
the  present  sewers  on  the  basis  of  a  separate  system  so  as  to  reach  a  decision  as  to 
future  policy  and  plans,  and  take  advantage  of  the  results  before  the  Lexington  ave- 
nue subway  is  built,  constructing  at  once  the  sewers  and  drains  which  may  follow 
along  or  cross  the  subway  to  form  a  part  of  a  general  system  suitable  for  all  the  new 
subway  conditions  in  Manhattan. 

In  The  Bronx  plans  have  been  prepared  for  the  district  east  of  the  Bronx  river, 
to  provide  sewerage  facilities  for  an  area  of  some  11,000  acres  which  is  at  present  with- 


FUTURE  LOCAL  PLANS  109 

out  such  accommodations.  The  territory  east  of  the  Bronx  river  has  very  few  sewers, 
the  only  ones  of  importance  being  those  which  serve  the  Unionport  district  and  which 
are  not  yet  completed. 

Additional  relief  sewers  are  contemplated  in  the  district  west  of  the  Bronx  river 
and  it  is  also  realized  that  some  of  the  existing  sewers  will  require  paralleling  or  dupli- 
cating as  the  density  of  population  increases  and  the  sewers  are  called  upon  to  take 
care  of  greater  quantities  of  both  storm  water  and  sewage. 

In  Brooklyn  the  construction  of  additional  relief  sewers  is  contemplated  for  the 
Wallabout  channel,  the  relief  of  the  Greene  avenue  sewer  through  the  proposed  Classon 
avenue  outlet,  additional  outlets  to  tide  water  for  improperly  sewered  districts  in 
several  locations  and  the  possible  construction  of  storm  water  sewers  to  relieve  the 
district  to  the  south  of  Flatbush.  Certain  areas  where  reversed  slopes  prevail  will 
have  to  be  taken  care  of  by  the  establishment  of  pumping  stations.  These  are  not  yet 
sufficiently  developed  to  warrant  the  expense  of  such  a  provision. 

In  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn  it  has  been  necessary,  on  account  of  errors  in  the 
assumptions  made  in  the  early  plans,  to  practically  redesign  all  the  unconstructed 
sewers  called  for  by  the  city  sewer  map;  and  advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  cir- 
cumstance to  provide  in  the  plans  for  changes  necessary  for  the  readjustment  of  the 
new  system  of  sewers  to  meet  the  requirements  of  subway  construction. 

In  Jersey  City  the  Greenville  section  is  badly  in  need  of  sewers,  but  permission  to 
discharge  any  more  sewage  into  Newark  bay  has  been  refused  and  therefore  some 
method  of  purification  will  be  required  in  connection  with  the  sewerage  of  this  district; 
this  circumstance  has  delayed  the  formulation  of  plans  and  definite  action. 

In  Etoboken  careful  studies  have  been  made  of  the  possibility  of  establishing 
pumping  stations  at  different  points  to  permit  of  the  continuous  discharge  of  that 
city's  sewage  into  the  Hudson  river  in  place  of  the  present  intermittent  system  of 
discharge ;  no  plan  which  has  seemed  feasible  and  practicable  has  yet  been  evolved. 

The  Joint  outlet  sewer  was  designed  to  have  sufficient  capacity  to  take  care  of  the 
sewage  and  a  limited  amount  of  ground  water  from  the  area  tributary  thereto  for  many 
years  in  the  future,  but  apparently  some  surface  water,  or  some  abnormally  large  sup- 
ply of  ground  water,  must  get  into  the  sewers  as  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  con- 
nect two  15-inch  overflow  pipes  on  the  east  branch  in  order  to  relieve  it  of  congestion 
during  storms.  When  the  sewer  was  designed  it  was  recommended  that  a  tank  with 
sufficient  capacity  to  store  one  day's  sewage  flow  be  built  upon  each  branch  of  this 
interceptor,  the  object  being  to  provide  sufficient  storage  capacity  in  the  tanks  to 
equalize  the  night  and  day  flow,  thereby  practically  doubling  the  capacity  of  the  sewer. 
It  would  seem,  from  the  necessity  of  having  to  provide  the  overflows  on  the  east 


110  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

branch,  that  it  were  time  to  construct  the  tank  although  no  mention  is  made  that  it  is 
the  intention  so  to  do. 

The  most  important  new  sewer  work  proposed  within  the  metropolitan  district  is 
that  of  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners  for  the  collection  and  disposal  into 
New  York  harbor  of  the  sewage  of  the  towns  in  the  Passaic  valley  between  Newark  and 
the  falls  at  Paterson.  Detailed  plans  for  this  sewer  are  now  being  prepared  and 
authority  to  construct  it  has  been  granted.  Its  course  follows  the  Passaic  river  from 
Paterson  to  Newark  keeping  close  to  the  west  bank  excepting  through  the  village  of 
Passaic  where  a  cut-off  is  made  to  save  distance.  The  original  plans  provide  for  a 
sewer  extending  down  the  valley  to  a  pumping  station  on  the  Newark  meadows  where 
the  sewage  would  be  screened  and  settled  prior  to  pumping  it  through  a  tunnel  under- 
neath Newark  bay,  the  Bayonne  peninsula  and  New  York  bay,  to  a  point  along  the 
western  edge  of  the  deep  channel  of  the  harbor  near  Bobbins  Keef.  At  this  point  the 
tunnel  is  to  be  connected  with  a  series  of  branched  pipes  having  a  number  of  outlets 
on  each  for  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  at  many  points. 

Another  sewerage  project  of  importance  is  that  for  the  construction  of  a  sewer 
in  the  valley  of  the  Bronx  river  for  the  interception  and  discharge  into  the  Hudson 
river  of  the  sewage  of  White  Plains  and  the  various  communities  in  the  valley  of  the 
Bronx  between  White  Plains  and  Mt.  Vernon.  From  White  Plains  south  the  sewer 
follows  the  valley  of  the  Bronx  river  as  far  as  Mt.  Vernon  where  it  turns  to  the  south- 
west until  within  300  feet  of  the  north  line  of  The  City  of  New  York.  At  this  point 
the  eewer  turns  and  follows  parallel  to  the  New  York  city  line  in  tunnel  to  the  Hudson 
river  where  an  outlet  is  to  be  provided  to  deep  water. 

It  is  stated  that  both  the  Passaic  Valley  and  the  Bronx  Valley  Sewerage  Commis- 
sioners intend  to  provide  a  measure  of  purification  for  the  sewage  before  its  discharge 
into  the  harbor.  The  details  of  the  plans  for  the  treatment  have  not  been  made  public 
in  either  case. 

SECTION  VII 
RATIO  OF  VOLUMES  OF  HARBOR  WATER  AND  SEWAGE 

Continuous  Sewage  Discharge.  In  considering  the  relationship  between  the 
volume  of  the  water  in  the  harbor  and  the  volume  of  sewage  discharged  into  it,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  discharge  of  sewage  is  continuous  while  the  flow  of  the 
harbor  waters  is  intermittent. 

The  exact  relationship  is  not  clear,  nor  can  it  be  made  so  on  account  of  the  com- 
plications attending  the  movement  of  the  harbor  waters. 


IIAliliOK  WATER  AND  SEWAGE 


111 


Intermittent  Tidal  Flows.  The  harbor  waters  oscillate  backward  and  forward 
on  the  ebb  and  flood  currents,  with  a  trend  through  the  Narrows  toward  the  sea  due 
to  the  resultant  excess  of  the  ebb  over  the  flood. 

This  resultant  ebb  flow  from  the  harbor  above  the  Narrows  is,  in  turn,  due  to 
the  land  water  plus  the  resultant  flow  through  the  East  river,  which  has  been  shown 
to  be  1,282.3  million  cubic  feet  per  twelve  lunar  hours  or  one  tidal  cycle.  The  quan- 
tity of  water  in  the  harbor  and  the  resultant  flow  through  the  various  divisions  of  the 
harbor  have  been  given  in  the  preceding  sections. 

In  Table  II  i.s  given  the  result  of  a  calculation  which  illustrates  the  ratio  of  vol- 
umes of  harbor  water  and  the  effluent  from  sewers. 

In  any  division  of  the  harbor  the  resultant  flow  represents  the  amount  of  water 
which  passes  out  during  a  tidal  cycle,  and  which  is  replaced  from  a  new  source  on  the 
next  cycle.  It,  therefore,  represents  the  net  change  taking  place  every  twelve  lunar 

hours. 

TABLE  II 

RELATION  BETWEEN  HARBOR  WATERS  AND  SEWAGE 
(Quantities  are  in  Millions  of  Cubic  Feet) 


1. 

Volume  of 
water  (1) 

2. 

Resultant 
Flow  One 
Tidal  Cycle 

3. 

Number  of 
Tides  to 
Change 

4. 

Number  of 
Days  to 
Change 

5. 

Sewage 
per  Day 
Estimated 
1908 

6. 

Sewage 
for  Days  in 
Col.  4 

7. 

Percent. 
Col.  6, 
Divided 
by  Col.  1 

13  178  5 

1  100 

12 

g 

22  0 

132 

East  river  

12,400 

100 

124 

64 

40  0 

2  560 

20 

Newark  bay  (2)  and  Kill  van  Kull.  .  .  . 
Upper  bay  (3)  

2,547.7 
14,240  5 

88. 
1  282  3 

29. 
11 

15. 
5  5 

7.1  (4) 
79  5 

106. 
437 

4. 
3 

Harlem  river  

221  9 

22  6 

10 

5 

4  g 

24 

11 

(1)  Volume  below  mean  low  water  plus  half  of  tidal  prism. 

(2)  84  per  cent,  of  Newark  bay  plus  Kill  van  Kull.     16  per  cent,  passes  out  through  Arthur  Kill. 

(3)  For  Upper  bay,  the  resultant  flow  is  taken  at  the  Narrows. 

(4)  Includes  the  sewage  discharge  above  the  Narrows,  with  84  per  cent,  of  Newark  bay  district. 

It  is  not  intended  that  these  percentages  shall  be  taken  as  accurate,  but  the  under- 
lying principle,  namely,  the  relative  pollution  by  virtue  of  the  continuous  discharge 
of  sewage  and  the  intermittent  tidal  flow,  is  represented  by  the  figures. 

As  the  water  flows,  from  say  the  East  river,  with  a  full  charge  of  sewage  into  the 
Upper  bay,  the  discharge  from  the  river  is  diluted  so  that  on  the  change  of  tide  the 
water  returning  to  the  river  has  a  lower  percentage  of  sewage.  It  is  on  this  account, 
and  on  account  of  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  sewage  itself,  that  the  percentages 
are  not  accurate. 


112  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  population  of  the  metropolitan  district  *  in 
1940  will  be  two  and  one-half  times  that  of  1908.  Under  these  conditions  the  pollu- 
tion of  the  waters  of  the  harbor  in  1940  will  exceed  the  proportions  which  are  usually 
considered  safe  for  the  dilution  of  sewage  in  a  stream  continuously  running  in  one 
direction.  This  is  shown  as  below : 

Future  Conditions.  The  quantity  of  sewage  now  entering  the  Upper  bay  is  about 
80  million  cubic  feet  per  day,  or  40  million  cubic  feet  per  tidal  cycle.  The  resultant  flow 
out  of  the  Upper  bay  is  1,282  million  cubic  feet,  or  a  relationship  of  one  part  sewage 
to  32  parts  water.  In  1940  these  proportions  would  change  to  one  part  sewage  to  13 
parts  water.  The  common  figure  for  dilution  of  sewage  entering  a  stream  running 
continuously  in  one  direction  is  one  part  sewage  to  15  parts  water.  Therefore,  be- 
tween now  and  1940  it  would  appear  that  the  limit  of  the  Upper  bay  would  be 
reached. 

The  resultant  flow  through  the  Narrows  is  1,282.3  million  cubic  feet,  which  as  a 
continuous  flow  for  12  lunar  hours  would  be  28,700  cubic  feet  per  second. 

In  1908  the  population  of  the  metropolitan  district  above  the  Narrows  was  about 
6,100,000.  Therefore,  the  cubic  feet  per  second  per  1,000  population  is  about  4.7. 

In  1940,-  the  population  in  the  same  district  above  the  Narrows  will  be  about 
10,800,000.  Therefore,  the  flow  per  1,000  population  will  be  about  2.65  cubic  feet  per 
second. 

When  sewage  is  discharged  into  water  it  undergoes  certain  digestive  processes, 
i.  G.,  the  sewage  is  continually  being  transformed  into  simpler  compounds,  and  loses 
its  sewage  qualities.  These  figures,  therefore,  must  be  considered  as  relative  only. 
They  show  that  in  1940  the  condition  of  the  water  in  some  of  the  divisions  of  the 
harbor  will  be  polluted  beyond  the  limitations  of  the  sanitary  standard  generally 
accepted. 

More  Information  Needed.  There  are  a  number  of  gauges  now  established  and 
maintained  by  the  United  States  Government  and  by  the  City  which  record  the  tidal 
ranges.  These  gauges  do  not  establish  information  from  which  direct  calculations 
could  be  made  of  the  quantities  of  water  carried  in  the  main  tidal  currents,  but  they 
do  give  information  upon  which  the  calculations  of  tidal  flow  are  based. 

Advantages  of  Additional  Stations.  The  main  advantage  of  establishing  addi- 
tional gauges  would  be  to  determine  whether  the  tidal  movements  were  being  reduced 
because  of  encroachment  of  piers  and  bulkheads.  If,  for  instance,  a  gauge  was  estab- 

*  A  district  covering  about  350  square  miles  in  each  of  the  States  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  with  Manhattan  as  center, 
varying  between  15  and  20  miles  from  the  center  to  the  margin. 


LACK  OF  CO-OPERATION  113 

lished  on  the  Hudson  river  above  Manhattan  Island,  at  some  point  like  Dobbs  Ferry 
or  even  further  north,  and  the  range  of  tide  were  there  found  to  diminish  from  year 
to  year,  it  would  indicate  that  the  tidal  movements  were  being  reduced  because  of 
such  encroachments.  For  similar  reasons,  gauges  might  be  maintained  in  Newark 
bay,  in  the  Passaic  river,  and  in  the  Hackensack  river. 


SECTION  VIII 
LACK  OF  CO-OPERATION  BETWEEN  THE  MUNICIPALITIES 

The  most  important  imperfections  revealed  by  a  review  of  the  methods  of  sewerage 
and  sewerage  administration  in  force  in  the  metropolitan  sewerage  district  may  be 
divided  into  three  general  classes : 

(a)  Lack  of  co-operation  between  the  different  municipalities  in  sewerage 

matters,  particularly  with  respect  to  disposal. 

(6)  Lack  of  co-operation  between  different  departments  of  the  same  city, 

(c)  Lack  of  uniformity  in  matters  of  design  and  construction. 

Sewage  Disposal.  It  is  evident  that  there  is  no  correlation  or  co-operation  between 
the  various  municipalities  of  the  district  whereby  the  entire  situation  with  respect  to 
sewage  disposal  and  to  the  pollution  of  the  surrounding  waters  can  be  taken  into 
account  in  providing  for  the  future  sewerage  of  the  different  districts.  This  is  wrong 
in  principle  and  in  time  Avill  be  found  to  have  been  wrong  in  practice. 

There  are  two  aspects  in  which  the  problem  of  the  sewage  disposal  for  tne  munici- 
palities within  the  metropolitan  district  must  be  considered,  the  local  and  the  general. 

Up  to  the  present  time  local  difficulties  only  have  been  thought  worth  considera- 
tion under  the  conviction,  strengthened  by  suggestions  of  the  further  discharge  into 
the  harbor  of  the  sewage  of  large  inland  communities  (under  the  plea  that  the  waters 
of  the  harbor  could  safely  receive  and  digest  such  additional  quantities),  that  much 
larger  quantities  of  sewage  could  be  discharged  into  the  harbor  if  properly  intro- 
duced. This  view  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  finds,  as  a  result  of  long  study 
based  on  most  careful  analytical  methods  and  data  supported  by  physical  examinations 
and  personal  inspections,  to  be  unwarranted.  It  appears,  in  fact,  that  at  the  present 
time  the  general  aspect  of  the  case  demands  attention  more  urgently  than  local  ques- 
tions. 

In  past  times  when  the  municipalities  now  forming  the  boroughs  of  New  York  were 
small,  the  population  rather  widely  scattered  and,  therefore,  the  quantity  of  sewage 
discharged  into  the  harbor  waters  small  in  comparison  to  the  quantities  now  being 
discharged  therein  no  troubles,  no  nuisances  and  no  inconveniences  were  experienced 


114  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

by  discharging  the  raw  unscreened  and  untreated  sewage  into  the  harbor  at  the  bulk 
head  line.  Increased  density  of  population,  increased  percentages  of  impervious  areas 
and  increased  conveniences  in  the  manner  of  living  and  the  requirements  of  civilization 
have  gradually  changed  conditions  so  that  some  years  ago  local  nuisances  began  to  man- 
ifest themselves  in  ferry  slips,  steamship  docks,  canals  and  tidal  estuaries  where  the 
sewage  Avas  discharged  at  the  bulkhead  line  where  it  was  not  submitted  to  proper  influ- 
ences for  its  satisfactory  dispersion.  The  bureaus  of  sewers  of  the  boroughs  of  New 
York  have  not  considered  that  the  time  had  been  reached  when  a  general  account 
should  be  taken  of  the  condition  of  the  harbor  waters  as  a  whole. 

Condition  of  the  Harbor  Waters.  It  may  be  the  impression  of  many  that  there  is 
no  necessity  for  considering  the  protection  of  the  harbor  waters  as  a  whole;  that  the 
adoption  of  such  methods  as  will  prevent  local  nuisances  and  will  cause  the  dispersion 
of  the  sewage  so  as  not  to  be  offensive  to  the  eye  will  be  a  satisfactory  treatment;  that 
the  sewage  from  the  Bronx  valley,  and  the  Passaic  valley  and  the  Hackensack  valley, 
and  other  districts  which  will  in  the  future  be  extensively  built  up  could  be  indefinitely 
discharged  into  the  waters  of  New  York  harbor  without  causing  trouble.  To  such  it 
will  no  doubt  be  a  surprise  to  learn  that  at  the  present  time  the  waters  of  the  Harlem 
river,  and  of  the  East  river  between  Wards  Island  and  the  mouth  of  the  Harlem  are  at 
practically  all  stages  of  the  tide  surcharged  with  sewage;  and  that  in  practically  every 
part  of  the  East  river  and  Hudson  river  and  the  Upper  bay  as  far  as  the  Narrows  there 
are  times  when  the  measure  of  the  existing  pollution  indicates  that  in  these  waters  the 
capacity  to  absorb  and  digest  sewage  has  been  reduced  already  50  per  cent,  and  that  on 
the  average,  the  entire  harbor  shows  for  the  past  year  a  reduction  of  30  per  cent,  of 
its  available  digestive  capacity. 

It  is  estimated  that  by  1940  the  population  that  will  be  resident  ai*ound  the  harbor 
of  New  York  Avill  be  about  twice  the  present  figures.  It  is,  therefore,  clearly  to  be  seen 
that  remedial  measures  to  control  the  method  of  discharging  sewage  into  New  York  har- 
bor should  be  inaugurated  as  soon  as  possible. 

In  the  polluted  water  the  transition  point  from  a  water  which  is  inoffensive  to  one 
which  is  decidedly  offensive  is  almost  instantaneous  and  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
dissolved  oxygen  contained  in  the  water.  So  long  as  any  dissolved  oxygen  is  present  the 
process  of  oxidation  will  go  on  without  offense  to  the  sense  of  smell  although  the  water 
may  be  in  a  very  unsightly  condition ;  but  when  the  dissolved  oxygen  has  all  disappeared 
further  oxidation  is  impossible  and  the  process  of  decay  and  putrefaction,  with  the 
evolution  of  offensive  odors,  begins  to  take  place. 

The  whole  of  -Manhattan  being  surrounded  with  water,  and  85  per  cent,  of  its  whole 
area  being  covered  with  buildings,  paved  streets  and  courtyards,  the  collection  of  the 


LACK  OF  CO-OPERATION  115 

sewage  of  the  entire  borough  for  delivery  to  a  site  elsewhere  suitable  for  its  complete 
purification  would  be  too  expensive.  The  same  is  true  for  portions  of  other  municipali- 
ties within  the  district. 

On  the  other  hand  for  portions  of  The  Bronx,  Brooklyn,  Queens  and  Richmond,  as 
well  as  all  the  other  municipalities  under  consideration,  sites  are  available  where  puri- 
fication plants  could  be  established  for  their  respective  territories,  when  such  may  be- 
come necessary. 

Bearing  in  mind,  further,  that  by  1940  the  quantity  of  sewage  produced  by  Man- 
hattan will  be  at  least  twice  the  present  amount,  and  that  it  is  now  approximately  half 
of  the  quantity  produced  in  the  entire  metropolitan  sewerage  district,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  pollution  from  Manhattan's  sewage  alone  will,  by  that  time,  exceed  the  present 
pollution  from  the  entire  metropolitan  sewerage  district,  wliich,  as  has  been  shown,  is 
now  excessive.  This  consideration  alone  makes  apparent  the  necessity  for  the  restriction 
of  the  pollution  of  the  harbor  waters.  With  no  control,  the  conditions  which  now  pre- 
vail in  the  Harlem  and  a  portion  of  the  East  river  would  eventually  extend  to  the  whole 
East  river  and  to  a  large  portion  of  the  Upper  bay  and  Hudson  river. 

Plans  for  Conservation.  To  avert  such  a  condition  it  is  wiser  to  face  the  problem 
now,  while  the  opportunity  exists,  and  outline  a  safe  and  rational  policy,  economical 
for  all  the  boroughs,  by  which  the  degree  of  pollution  of  the  harbor  waters  as  a  whole 
may  be  kept  down  to  proper  limits  and  all  tiie  sewerage  works  of  the  district  be  planned 
to  fit  into  a  proper  scheme  of  conservancy  without  waste  of  public  resources. 

If  such  a  plan  is  not  followed,  and  if  license  be  given  to  each  borough  to  dis- 
charge its  raw  sewage  into  the  harbor  waters  without  restraint,  portions. of  some  of  the 
boroughs  which  could,  for  no  greater  expense,  take  care  of  and  purify  the  sewage  origin- 
ating within  their  boundaries  will  appropriate  the  digestive  capacity  needed  by  other 
portions  of  those,  or  other  boroughs,  and  multiplications  of  the  nuisances  in  Newtowu 
creek,  Wallabout  channel,  Gowanus  canal  and  Paerdegat  basin  will  be  produced,  on  a 
larger  scale,  in  the  end  of  Long  Island  Sound  ( technically  known  as  the  East  river  be- 
tween Throgs  Neck  and  Hell  Gate),  in  the  East  river,  in  Newark  bay  and  Kill  van 
Kull,  and  along  the  Manhattan  and  New  Jersey  shores. 

The  unrestricted,  unrelated  discharge  of  sewage  into  the  harbor  waters  can  not  be 
permitted  to  continue  indefinitely  for  the  reason  that  the  quantity  of  harbor  water 
available  for  the  dilution  of  the  sewage  will,  of  course,  not  change  materially  from  year 
to  year,  while  the  quantity  of  sewage  will  increase  with  the  population ;  and  the  limits 
to  which  it  will  increase  are  not  known.  New  York  is  growing,  but  it  is  not  yet  the 
largest  city  in  the  world. 


116  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

It  is  imperative,  therefore,  that  a  general  plan  of  conservancy  be  outlined  taking 
into  account  the  difficulties  and  advantages  peculiar  to  each  district,  or  locality,  and 
determining,  in  advance  of  the  actual  requirements  of  each  section,  that  policy  which 
will,  for  the  least  expense  and  with  the  guarantee  of  proper  results,  best  permit  each 
section  to  enjoy  the  advantage  of  its  location  without  robbing  another  section  of  its  ad- 
vantages and  rights.  The  whole  question  of  methods  should  be  worked  out  with  great 
care,  in  collaboration  with  the  existing  authorities,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  needs 
and  natural  advantages  of  each  section,  by  one  authoritative  commission  which  shall 
represent  the  entire  district  without  prejudice  to  the  rights  of  any  one  section. 

It  would  be  desirable  if  the  New  Jersey  authorities  would  join  with  New  York  in 
outlining  a  general  plan  of  conservancy,  but  such  co-operation  is  not  essential.  In  the 
boroughs  of  New  York  originate  the  major  sources  of  pollution,  and  the  necessity  for 
action  on  the  part  of  New  York  would  be  imminent  even  if  the  New  Jersey  sewage 
were  purified  within  the  confines  of  that  State.  When  New  York  shall  have  announced 
plans  for  improving  present  conditions,  as  well  as  for  preventing  the  creation  of  fur- 
ther nuisances,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  securing  the  effective  co-operation  of  the 
Federal  Government  and  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  secure  such  reasonable  regula- 
tions with  respect  to  the  further  pollution  of  New  York  harbor  as  will  effectively  protect 
all  interests. 

SECTION  IX 

LACK  OF  CO-OPEEATION  BETWEEN  DEPARTMENTS 

It  is  inevitable  that  in  relatively  young  and  rapidly  growing  communities  sys- 
tems of  government  should  reflect,  in  a  degree,  the  conditions  exemplified  in  the  rapid 
growths  of  the  communities  themselves.  This  we  find  to  be  the  case  to  a  considerable 
extent  throughout  the  metropolitan  sewerage  district,  being  manifested,  in  its  light  of 
greatest  interest  in  this  discussion,  by  lack  of  co-operation  between  the  different  exec- 
utive departments  of  municipal  governments. 

Between  Sewer,  Highway,  Dock  and  Magisterial  Departments.  One  of  the  prin- 
cipal objects  of  administrative  government  is  the  economical  provision  and  manage- 
ment of  works  for  the  public  good.  It  seems  academic  to  point  out  that  to  secure 
reasonable  and  expected  benefits  there  should  be  co-operation  between  the  various  sub- 
departments  which  form  co-ordinate  parts  of  the  whole. 

There  are,  however,  in  nearly  all  the  municipalities  within  the  metropolitan  sewer- 
age district  examples  of  the  reverse  of  this  simple  proposition.  In  Manhattan,  for 
instance,  there  is  an  ordinance  forbidding  the  dumping  of  snow,  street  sweepings  and 
refuse  into  catch  basins  and  sewers,  and  yet  street  sweepers,  when  not  watched,  reg- 


LACK  OF  CO-OPEKATION  117 

ularly  push  such  matter  into  catch  basins.  The  sewer  cleaners  can  iiot  successfully 
remove  all  these  matters  from  the  sewers  and  the  Dock  Department  has  to  dredge 
them  from  the  slips ;  finally  the  magistrates  dismiss  the  cases  when  the  sewer  cleaners 
have  the  street  sweepers  arrested  for  violation  of  the  ordinance. 

Here  is  one  example  of  the  lack  of  co-operation  between  the  Bureau  of  Sewers, 
the  Bureau  of  Highways,  the  Department  of  Docks  and  the  City  Magistrates.  The 
practical  effect  is  the  ignoring  of  the  Sewer  Department  by  the  street  sweepers  under, 
magisterial  indifference,  the  fouling  of  the  catch  basins  with  resulting  odors,  the  fill- 
ing up  of  sewers  with  detritus,  and  additional  work  thrown  on  the  Department  of 
Docks.  The  street  sweepers  push  the  sweepings  into  the  sewers  as  an  easier  way  of 
getting  rid  of  them  than  picking  them  up  and  throwing  them  into  the  Department's 
carts.  It  costs  very  much  more  to  remove  deposits  from  catch  basins  and  sewers  than 
it  would  to  remove  the  same  materials,  usually  in  a  reasonably  dry  condition,  from 
the  piles  on  the  street  surface;  the  extra  cost  is  paid  by  taxpayers. 

An  instance  of  lack  of  co-operation  between  the  street  repair  and  street  cleaning 
departments  of  New  York  was  shown  in  the  report  of  the  committee  on  street  cleaning 
in  the  statement  that  the  extra  annual  cost  of  cleaning  streets  with  worn-out  and  de- 
fective pavements  would  more  than  keep  their  surfaces  in  good  condition. 

With  Respect  to  Construction  and  Maintenance.  Another  direction  in  which  lack 
of  co-operation  manifests  itself  in  connection  with  the  sewerage  of  the  municipalities 
within  the  district  is  in  the  provision,  in  certain  districts,  for  the  building  of  sewers 
by  or  under  the  direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  and  the  catch  basins  by  the  High- 
way Department  to  be  turned  over  to  the  Sewer  Department  for  maintenance  when 
built.  This  frequently  results  in  admitting  more  storm  water  into  the  sewers  than 
they  can  properly  care  for,  with  resultant  choking  and  the  backing  of  sewage  up  into 

cellars. 

The  Public  Service  Commission  and  the  Bureau  of  Sewers.  The  lack  of  co-opera- 
tion between  the  Public  Service  Commission  and  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  is  a  matter  of 
serious  moment.  The  Public  Service  Commission  should  submit  plans  in  advance, 
showing  what  changes  are  proposed  in  each  locality,  and  should  not  make  changes 
until  the  plans  therefor  have  been  formally  approved  by  the  Bureau  of  Sewers;  suf- 
ficient appropriations  should  be  made  to  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  to  permit  this  service 
to  be  rendered  promptly. 

It  is  almost  certain  that  with  the  construction  of  the  many  subways  planned  on 
the  avenues  in  Manhattan  interference  with  the  storm  water  sewers  will  be  so  serious 
that  were  a  number  of  these  subways  to  be  constructed  at  one  time  it  would  be  far 
cheaper  to  reconstruct  on  the  separate  plan  all  the  sewers  interfered  with  than  to 


SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

change  and  reconnect  each  sewer  for  each  subway  interference.  In  fact,  the  sewers 
conld  not  be  remodeled  to  suit  the  construction  of  the  proposed  new  subways  without 
the  construction  of  inverted  siphons  under  the  subways,  which  on  storm  water  sewers 
of  such  size  and  character,  with  no  opportunities  for  overflow,  would  be  clearly  inad- 
missible. 

In  line  with  this  policy  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  feels  that  where 
sewers  in  the  lower  part  of  Manhattan  require  reconstruction  the  new  sewers  should 
be  built  on  the  separate  plan,  the  storm  sewers  keeping  as  close  to  the  surface  as 
necessary,  and  the  sanitary  sewers  low  enough  to  pass  underneath  the  subways  in  in- 
verted siphons,  when  these  can  not  be  avoided. 

Right  of  Entry  for  Inspectors.  In  the  matter  of  the  maintenance  of  the  sewers 
one  of  the  most  important  defects  in  the  administrative  authority  lies  in  the  inability 
of  the  bureaus  of  sewers  to  secure  evidence  sufficiently  strong  to  warrant  convictions 
of  violations  of  the  ordinances  against  the  discharge  of  steam,  hot  water,  gases,  acids 
and  other  injurious  matters,  into  the  sewers. 

The  courts  require  substantial  proof  that  the  ordinance  is  violated  by  the  party 
against  whom  the  complaint  is  filed  and  this  is  practically  impossible  to  secure.  The 
departmental  work  would  be  rendered  more  effective  in  this  direction  by  the  passage 
of  an  ordinance  granting  the  bureaus  of  sewers,  through  the  inspectors,  the  right  to 
enter  premises  and  inspect  periodically  all  sewer  connections,  the  same  as  do  the  in- 
spectors of  the  Department  of  Water  Supply,  Gas  and  Electricity.  Violations  of  the 
ordinance  could  then  be  discovered  and  a  stop  be  put  to  practices  which  not  only  ren- 
der impossible  inspections  of  the  City's  sewers  in  some  localities,  but  also  destroy  the 
sewers. 

SECTION  X 
LACK  OF  UNIFORMITY  IN  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

Storm  Water  Allowances.  A  study  of  the  methods  employed  in  the  various  mu- 
nicipalities within  the  district  for  estimating  the  quantities  of  storm  water  to  be  pro- 
vided for  in  the  sewers  reveals  a  great  diversity  of  practice. 

Some  of  these  differences  can  be  explained  by  differences  in  topographical  and 
surface  conditions;  the  reasons  for  others  are  not  apparent.  This  is  a  fruitful  sub- 
ject for  further  investigation,  and  an  effort  should  be  made  to  standardize  these 
methods  by  long-time  gaugings  of  sewer  flows  under  various  conditions  in  the  dif- 
ferent districts  and  the  reduction  of  the  results  to  a  rational  basis  for  analysis,  com- 
parison and  application.  The  cost  of  such  an  investigation  if  conducted  by  the 


DESIGN    AND    CONSTRUCTION  11<> 

various  bureaus  under  the  general  supervision  of  one  head  would  be  comparatively 
slight,  and  the  results  of  far-reaching  benefit. 

Designs.  In  the  matter  of  designs,  also,  the  work  should  be  standardized  as  much 
as  possible  to  secure  uniform  bidding  and  fair  prices. 

In  the  existing  works  are  to  be  seen  examples  of  every  known  type  and  condi- 
tion. Some  of  the  outfall  sewers  end  at  the  bulkhead  line,  some  at  the  pierhead,  some 
out  into  the  open  water,  discharging  on  the  surface  of  the  water;  some  are  submerged 
with  the  ends  of  the  sewers  tide-locked  practically  all  the  time;  some  discharge  upon 
salt  marshes  or  into  the  small  canals  and  channels  dug  through  the  marshes  for 
drainage  purposes;  some  have  storm  water  outfalls  at  the  shore  line  with  submerged 
sewage  outfalls  leading  out  to  deep  water  and  some  discharge  under  the  piers  back 
of  the  pierhead  line.  From  some  of  the  outfalls  dispersion  of  the  sewage  seems  to  be 
complete  and  satisfactory;  from  others  it  is  the  reverse.  This  whole  question  should 
be  investigated  in  a  practical  way  in  co-operation  with  the  bureaus  of  sewers  and  a 
policy  adopted  for  varying  conditions  that  would  insure,  where  tidal  discharge  proves 
proper,  the  satisfactory  disposition  of  the  sewage. 

Ventilation.  Another  matter  of  importance  relates  to  a  uniform  and  more  satis- 
factory system  of  ventilation  for  the  sewers,  where  necessarily  placed  at  so  low  an 
elevation  as  sometimes  to  be  tide-locked.  The  offensive  odors  around  the  manholes  in 
such  locations  should  be  done  away  with  by  proper  ventilation  systems.  In  New  York, 
where  troubles  of  this  nature  are  more  prevalent  than  in  the  other  municipalities  in 
the  district,  it  is  the  uniform  practice  to  use  disconnecting  traps  on  all  house  con- 
nections so  that  the  air  from  the  sewers  can  not  enter  the  pipes  within  the  buildings. 
The  ventilation  of  the  house  pipes  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  an  air  vent  on  the 
house  side  of  the  disconnecting  trap  whereby  a  current  of  air  is  permitted  to  circulate 
down  into  the  house  sewer  and  then  up  to  the  air  above  the  building  through  the  soil 
pipe.  The  adoption  of  this  plan  for  plumbing  confines  the  ventilation  of  the  public 
sewers  with  tide-locked  outlets  to  the  ingress  and  egress  of  air  through  the  perfora- 
tions in  the  manhole  covers;  it  does  not  insure  a  circulation  of  air  through  the  sewers, 
and  hence  the  air  that  goes  into  the  sewer  comes  out  again  through  the  same  holes 
into  the  street,  impregnated  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent  with  sewer  air  which,  even 
though  not  always  necessarily  objectionable  as  to  odor,  usually  contains  a  high  propor- 
tion of  carbon  dioxide,  a  gas  which  unmixed  with  air  will  not  support  life.  As  many 
of  the  tall  office  buildings  in  lower  New  York  have  ventilation  systems,  particularly 
for  the  stories  below  street  level,  and  as  the  inlets  for  air  are  in  areaways  beneath 
the  sidewalks,  the  blowers  drive  through  the  buildings  air  of  not  as  good  quality  as 


120  SUMMARY    OF    INVESTIGATIONS 

should  be  available.  This  matter  should  receive  attention;  the  remedy  is  simple  and 
inexpensive. 

Street  Washing.  Numerous  suggestions  have  appeared  iu  the  press  within  the 
past  year  regarding  the  washing  of  the  streets  with  water  to  aid  in  cleaning  in 
summer  and  to  remove  snow  in  winter.  These  practices  are  followed  abroad  to  some 
extent,  and  with  conspicuous  success  where  the  sewers  are  built  upon  steep  enough 
grades  to  permit  the  solids  to  be  carried  through  them  by  the  flowing  sewage,  and 
when  catch  basins  are  omitted  from  the  street  inlets;  but  if  followed  indiscriminately 
in  New  York,  and  without  strict  supervision,  much  complaint  and  probably  suits  for 
damages  would  result. 

At  the  upper  ends  of  the  sewers  probably  no  inconvenience  would  be  felt;  but  in 
the  flat  portions  near  the  waterfront,  where  the  rising  tide  backs  into  the  sewers,  the 
solids  washed  in  from  the  streets  would  deposit  in  the  quiet  water  and  cause  obstruc- 
tions which  would  be  costly  of  removal  or  cause  the  gorging  of  the  sewer  and  the  con- 
sequent flooding  of  cellars  and  streets.  For  street  washing  to  be  successfully  employed 
there  should  be  no  catch  basius  on  the  sewers,  the  sewer  grades  should  be  steep  enough 
to  insure  self-cleansing  velocities  of  flow,  and  a  screen  and  grit  chamber  should  be 
arranged  at  the  outlet  end  of  the  sewer  whence  the  retained  materials  could  be  eco- 
nomically removed.  Where  applicable  this  plan  is  meritorious  from  a  sanitary  stand- 
point, as  well  as  on  the  score  of  economical  operation. 


PART    III 

Data   Collected 


CHAPTER   I 
MOVEMENT   FOR   A   CLEAN   HARBOR 

In  the  year  1903  the  Governor  of  The  State  of  New  York  appointed  a  board  of  ex- 
perts in  accordance  with  a  special  Act  of  Legislature  entitled  "  An  Act  to  authorize  the 
appointment  by  the  Governor  of  a  commission  to  investigate  certain  threatened  pollu- 
tion of  the  waters  of  New  York."  (Chapter  539,  Laws  of  1903).  The  commission  so 
brought  into  existence  consisted  of  Daniel  Lewis,  Chairman,  Olin  H.  Landreth,  George 
A.  Soper,  Myron  S.  Folk  and  Louis  L.  Tribus,  Secretary.  Dr.  Lewis  was  at  the  time 
Commissioner  of  Health  of  the  State. 

THE  NEW  YORK  BAY  POLLUTION  COMMISSION 

The  reason  for  creating  the  New  York  Bay  Pollution  Commission  is  stated  in  the 
first  report  of  the  commission,  dated  March  31,  1905,  (Senate  Document  39,  1905),  as 

follows : 

"  The  State  Department  of  Health,  having  for  years  noted  with  anxiety  the 
increasing  pollution  of  New  York  harbor,  due  to  the  discharge  into  its  waters,  of 
sewage  and  factory  wastes  of  all  kinds  from  the  different  boroughs  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  the  city  of  Yonkers,  and  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  State  of  New 
Jersey,  situated  along  the  banks  of  the  Hudson  river,  New  York  bay  and  their 
tributaries  and  estuaries,  and  this  pollution  having  culminated  in  the  proposed 
construction  of  an  immense  sewer  to  discharge  the  wastes  from  a  large  territory 
in  New  Jersey,  not  contiguous  to  the  waters  of  New  York  bay,  brought  the  mat- 
ter to  the  attention  of  Governor  Odell,  who  thereupon  invited  legislative  action." 

The  Pollution  Commission  held  its  first  meeting  on  June  30, 1903,  at  which  time  an 
outline  of  procedure  was  prepared  and  assignments  made  to  the  different  members  of 
subjects  for  special  investigation.  Each  Commissioner  reported  upon  the  topic  assigned 
him  and  these  reports  were  ultimately  published  as  appendices  to  the  Commission's  for- 
mal reports.  In  addition  to  the  work  done  'by  special  assignment,  the  Commission  held 
frequent  meetings,  took  testimony  at  public  hearings  and  held  joint  conferences  with  the 
Passaic  Valley  District  Sewerage  Commission  to  learn  the  details  of  the  Passaic  valley 
project. 

First  Report.  Briefly  stated,  the  commission  found  the  harbor  to  be  seriously  pol- 
luted ;  it  pointed  out  that  the  relation  of  the  waters  to  climatic  and  sanitary  conditions, 
as  well  as  to  commerce,  was  "  of  value  beyond  computation,"  and  recommended  that  the 
waters  be  protected  from  pollution  by  sewage  as  far  as  practicable.  Two  systems  of 
final  disposal  were  considered  to  be  feasible  for  the  district  as  a  whole :  First,  sewage 


124  DATA    COLLECTED 

purification  plants  for  each  local  district  or  municipality;  at  such  works  the  sewage 
would  be  so  treated  as  to  make  it  innocuous  and  inoffensive  when  it  reached  the  waters 
of  the  harbor.  Second,  a  comprehensive  scheme  for  carrying  the  crude  sewage  of  the 
whole  metropolitan  district  lying  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey  to  sea,  either  by  one  or 
by  several  great  trunk  sewers  or  tunnels.  lu  either  case  the  work  suggested  would  be  of 
such  great  magnitude  that  the  Pollution  Commission  felt  able  to  propose  it  only  in 
barest  outline.  As  far  as  the  Pollution  Commission  could  determine,  the  idea  of  disposal 
at  sea  offered  the  more  promising  solution  of  the  question. 

To  control  the  disposal  of  sewage  in  future,  the  Pollution  Commission  suggested 
the  establishment  of  a  metropolitan  district  "  to  include  all  sections  in  both  New  York 
State  and  New  Jersey  which  now  or  in  future  might  sewer  into  the  bay  and  its  tribu- 
taries." The  Commission  advised  that, 

"  Such  a  district,  when  authorized  by  joint  State  and  Federal  legislation. 
should  be  under  the  direction  and  control  of  a  permanent  interstate  commission, 
with  plenary  power  to  control  the  discharge  of  all  sewers  hereafter  constructed, 
as  well  as  the  evolving  of  a  comprehensive  plan  for  ultimately  rendering  the 
present  chaotic,  systemless  method  of  sewage  disposal  sanitary  and  suitable  for 
all  future  requirements." 

The  Commission  declared  that  necessity  already  existed  for  a  central  authority 
to  not  only  direct,  but  to  initiate  such  great  public  works  as  were  required. 

In  conclusion,  the  Pollution  Commission  protested  against  the  consummation  of 
the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission's  project  as  then  proposed.  It  recom- 
mended that  the  Legislature  authorize  the  appointment  of  a  Metropolitan  District 
Sewerage  Commission  to  thoroughly  investigate  the  practicability  of  a  comprehensive 
system  for  ocean  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  the  metropolitan  district  of  New  York  and  New 
Jersey,  advised  that  the  Attorney  General  of  the  State  of  New  York  be  authorized  and 
directed  to  bring  action  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  against  the  State  of 
New  Jersey  and  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  upon  his  attention  being 
called  to  any  act  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey  or  the  Passaic  commission  toward  carry- 
ing into  effect  the  construction  of  the  trunk  sewer  which  had  been  proposed. 

Final  Report.  The  presentation  of  the  report  of  the  New  York  Bay  Pollution  Com- 
mission was  unavoidably  delayed  until  nearly  the  close  of  the  Legislature  of  1905,  and 
action  looking  to  the  carrying  out  of  the  Pollution  Commission's  recommendations 
could  not  be  taken  that  year.  The  Legislature  continued  the  life  of  the  Commission  for 
another  year,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  Pollution  Commission  made  a  second  and 
final  report.  (Assembly  Document  76,  1906). 

When  the  first  report  was  submitted  technical  journals  and  the  daily  press  of  New 
York  gave  much  publicity  to  the  matters  which  had  been  reported  upon  and  commended 


MOVEMENT  FOE  A  CLEAN  HARBOR  125 

fully  the  work  already  done  and  that  proposed.  Representative  bodies  gave  evidence  of 
being  alive  to  the  necessity  of  action,  especially  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  the  Merchants'  Association  of  New  York,  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Transporta- 
tion, the  Maritime  Association  of  the  Port  of  New  York,  the  Produce  Exchange,  the  City 
Club,  the  American  Scenic  and  Historic  Preservation  Society  and  the  Municipal  Engi- 
neers of  The  City  of  New  York. 

In  1905-6  the  Pollution  Commission's  further  studies  confirmed  the  conclusions 
which  had  been  arrived  at  in  the  earlier  investigations.  The  Commission  stated  that 
this  additional  work 

"  Demonstrated  still  more  clearly  the  need  for  full  study  and  the  earliest 
possible  consideration  of  the  whole  question  of  preventing  the  further  pollution 
of  the  waters  in  question  and  the  ultimate  doing  away  with  even  the  present 
causes  of  contamination." 

THE  METROPOLITAN  SEWERAGE  COMMISSION  OF  NEW  YORK 

Appointment.  Action  in  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  the  New  York 
Bay  Pollution  Commission  was  taken  in  1906.  By  an  Act  (Chapter  639,  Laws  of 
1906)  which  became  law  May  25,  1906,  the  New  York  Legislature  provided  for  a  com- 
mission "  to  investigate  and  consider  means  for  protecting  the  waters  of  New  York  bay 
and  vicinity  against  pollution  and  authorizing  The  City  of  New  York  to  pay  the  ex- 
penses thereof."  (Chapter  639,  Laws  of  1900). 

This  Act  required  that  the  Mayor  of  the  City  of  New  York  should  appoint  five  per- 
sons, three  of  whom,  at  least,  should  be  of  recognized  skill  in  sanitary  engineering  and 
each  a  resident  of  the  State  of  New  York,  to  be  a  board  of  commissioners  to  continue 
the  work  of  the  New  York  Bay  Pollution  Commission  and  extend  that  work  so  as  to  in- 
clude a  number  of  specific  duties. 

The  following  persons  were  appointed  members  of  this  new  commission :  Daniel 
Lewis,  President,  Matthew  C.  Fleming,  Olin  H.  Landreth,  George  A.  Soper  and  Andrew 
J.  Provost,  Jr.,  Secretary.  It  was  decided  to  call  the  board  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
Commission  of  New  York.  On  October  5,  1906,  Mr.  Fleming  resigned  and  Mr.  James 
H.  Fuertes  was  appointed  in  his  place.  In  January,  1908,  the  membership  of  the  com- 
mission was  reconstituted.  The  reorganized  board  has  remained  without  change  to  the 
present  time.  The  members  are :  George  A.  Soper,  President,  James  H.  Fuertes,  Secre- 
tary, H.  de  B.  Parsons,  Charles  Sooysmith,  Linsly  R.  Williams. 


1L'<>  DATA    COLLECTED 

The  Act  in  full  follows: 

CHAPTER  639,  NEW  YORK  STATE  LAWS  OF  1906 

An  Act  to  provide  for  a  commission  to  investigate  and  consider  means  for 
protecting  the  waters  of  New  York  bay  and  vicinity  against  pollution  and 
authorizing  the  city  of  New  York  to  pay  the  expenses  thereof. 

Became  a  law,  May  25,  1906,  with  the  approval  of  the  Governor.  Passed, 
three-fifths  being  present. 

Accepted  by  the  city. 

The  People  of  the  State  of  New  York,  represented  in  Senate  and  Assembly. 
do  enact  as  follows: 

Section  1.  The  mayor  of  the  city  of  New  York  shall  appoint  five  persons, 
three  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  be  of  recognized  skill  in  sanitary  engineering,  to 
become  a  board  of  commissioners  for  the  purposes  hereinafter  specified.  Each 
of  the  persons  so  appointed  shall  be  a  resident  of  New  York  state.  The  board 
shall  have  power  to  appoint  a  president  and  a  secretary  from  among  its  mem- 
bers and  to  engage  such  engineers,  chemists,  bacteriologists,  inspectors,  drafts- 
men, stenographers,  clerks  and  other  employees,  and  to  incur  such  other 
expenses  in  executing  the  purposes  of  this  act,  as  may  be  necessary.  The  cor- 
poration counsel  of  the  city  of  New  York  shall  be  the  attorney  at  law  for,  and 
legal  adviser  of,  the  board,  and  shall,  upon  its  request,  either  personally  or 
through  such  of  his  assistants,  or  other  counsel  as  he  may  designate,  furnish  it 
with  advice  and  aid,  in  a  similar  manner  as  he  is  required  by  law  to  do  in  the 
case  of  the  departments,  boards  and  officers  of  the  city  of  New  York. 

Sec.  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  to  continue  the  work  of  the  New 
York  bay  pollution  commission  established  by  chapter  five  hundred  and  thirty- 
nine  of  the  laws  of  nineteen  hundred  and  three,  and  to  extend  the  work  of  that 
commission  so  as  to  include  the  following  duties : 

(1)  To  make  further  investigations  into  the  present  and  probable  future 
sanitary  condition  of  the  waters  of  New  York  bay  and  other  bodies  of  water  with- 
in or  adjacent  to  the  several  boroughs  of  New  York  city  and  neighboring  dis- 
tricts. 

(2)  To  consider  and  investigate  the  most  effective  and  feasible  means  of 
permanently  improving  and  protecting  the  purity  of  the  waters  of  New  York  bay 
and  neighboring  waters,  giving  attention  particularly  to  the  following  subjects: 

(a)  Whether  it  is  desirable  and  feasible  for  New  York  city  and  the  munici- 
palities in  its  vicinity  to  agree  upon  a  general  plan  or  policy  of  sewerage  and 
sewage  disposal  which  will  protect  the  waters  of  New  York  bay  and  vicinity 
against  unnecessary  and  injurious  pollution  by  sewage  and  other  wastes ; 

(b)  What  methods  of  collecting  and  disposing  of  the  sewage  and  other 
wastes  which  pollute,  or  may  eventually  pollute,  the  waters  contemplated  in  this 
act  are  most  worthy  of  consideration ; 

(c)  Whether  it  is  desirable  to  establish  a  sewerage  district  in  order  properly 
to  dispose  of  the  wastes,  and  adequately  protect  the  purity  of  the  waters,  con- 


MOVEMENT  FOR  A  CLEAN  HARBOR  127 

templated  in  this  act,  and,  if  so,  what  should  be  the  limits  and  boundaries  of  this 
.sewerage  district; 

(d)  What  would  be  the  best  system  of  administrative  control  for  the  incep- 
tion, execution  and  operation  of  a  plan  for  sewerage,  and  ultimate  sewage  dis- 
posal, of  a  metropolitan  sewerage  district;  whether  by  the  action  of  already  ex- 
isting departments  and  provisions  of  government,  by  the  establishment  of  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  sewerage  districts  and  permanent  commissions  in  each  state, 
by  one  interstate  metropolitan  sewerage  district  and  commission  to  bfc  estab- 
lished by  agreement  between  the  two  states,  this  agreement  if  necessary  to  be 
ratified  by  congress,  or  by  other  means. 

(3)  To  co-operate  with  any  duly  authorized  body  or  commission  having 
similar  authority  in  the  state  of  New  Jersey,  in  the  joint  investigation  and  con- 
sideration of  the  various  subjects  specified  in  this  act. 

(4)  To  submit  to  the  mayor  of  the  city  of  New  York  in  writing  on  or  before 
February  first,  nineteen  hundred  and  nine,  a  full  and  complete  report  of  its  in- 
vestigations, conclusions  and  recommendations.     Also  to  submit  such  definite 
conclusions  and  recommendations  as  may  have  been  reached  conjointly  by  the 
commission  herein  established,  acting  in  conjunction  with  any  similar  body  hav- 
ing similar  authority  from  the  state  of  New  Jersey,  relating  to  the  most  effective 
and    feasible   means   or   plan    for   permanently  improving  and  protecting  the 
waters  of  New  York  bay  and  the  rivers  and  other  bodies  of  water  within  or  adja- 
cent to  the  several  municipalities  in  the  metropolitan  district. 

Sec.  3.  The  members  of  the  commission  herein  provided  for  shall,  before 
entering  upon  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  take  and  subscribe  the  constitu- 
tional oath  of  office. 

Sec.  4.  Each  member  of  the  commission  shall  have  the  power  to  admin- 
ister oaths  and  the  commission- shall  have  the  power  to  subpoena  witnesses  and 
take  testimony,  and,  in  addition,  shall  have  all  the  powers  of  legislative  commit- 
tees as  provided  by  article  three  of  the  legislative  law.  The  members  of  the 
commission,  and  all  persons  duly  authorized  by  the  commission,  shall  have  the 
right  of  entry  and  passage  to  any  place  or  property  on  land  or  water  within  the 
state,  or  under  the  state's  jurisdiction,  for  the  purpose  of  making  surveys,  ex- 
aminations or  investigations. 

Sec.  5.  The  commission  shall  terminate  on  May  first,  nineteen  hundred 
and  nine,  and  all  maps,  results  or  surveys  and  examinations,  estimates  and  other 
papers  and  matter  acquired  by  the  New  York  commission  shall  be  properly  in- 
dexed and  labeled  and  turned  over  to  the  board  of  estimate  and  apportionment 
of  New  York  city. 

Sec.  6.  The  members  of  the  commission  shall  receive  no  salary,  but  shall 
be  paid  their  reasonable  and  necessary  expenses  actually  incurred  in  the  prose- 
cution of  their  duties,  and  shall  each  be  paid  a  just  and  reasonable  per  diem  com- 
pensation, to  be  determined  by  the  mayor  of  the  city  of  New  York  for  the  time 
actually  and  necessarily  employed  on  the  work  of  the  commission. 


128  DATA    COLLECTED 

Sec.  7.  The  comptroller  of  the  city  of  New  York  is  hereby  authorized  and 
directed  to  raise  from  time  to  time,  by  issuance  of  corporate  stock  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  fifteen  thousand  dollars,  or  such  part  of  this  sum  as  shall  be  suffi- 
cient to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  commission  herein  provided  for.  Such  corpo- 
rate stock  shall  be  issued  by  the  comptroller  when  thereto  authorized  as  provided 
in  section  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  of  the  Greater  New  York  charter.  All 
payments  from  the  sale  of  such  corporate  stock  shall  be  made  upon  proper 
vouchers,  having  the  authorization  of  the  chairman  and  secretary  or  by  signa- 
tures of  a  majority  of  the  commission  herein  provided  for,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  laws,  regulations  and  practice  now  in  force  for  the  payment  of  money 
by  the  comptroller  of  the  city  of  New  York. 

Sec.  8.  The  secretary  of  state  is  hereby  directed  to  communicate  to  the 
governor  of  the  state  of  New  Jersey,  transmitting  a  copy  of  this  act  and  to  ex- 
tend through  him  an  invitation  to  the  state  of  New  Jersey  to  co-operate  with 
the  state  and  city  of  New  York  in  carrying  out  the  purposes  to  be  attained  by 
this  act. 

Sec.  9.     This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 

Appropriations.  This  Act  of  Legislature  which  provided  for  the  creation  of  the 
Metropolitan  Commission  specified  that  the  life  of  the  board  should  terminate  May  1, 
1909.  By  an  amending  Act  (Chapter  422,  Laws  of  1908)  the  life  of  the  Commission 
was  extended  to  May  1,  1910.  At  first  the  Commissioners  received  no  salary ;  the  Act 
specified  that  they  were  to  be  paid  a  per  diem  compensation  to  be  determined  by  the 
Mayor  of  The  City  of  New  York.  This  compensation  was  eventually  fixed  at  five 
dollars  per  day.  By  the  amending  act  a  compensation  of  f  3,000  per  year  was  allowed 
each  commissioner,  but  no  allowance  was  to  be  made  for  personal  expenses. 

Work  Undertaken.  The  Metropolitan  Commission  as  at  first  constituted  extended 
the  work  of  the  Pollution  Commission  in  the  following  directions : 

(1)  Analytical  investigations  of  the  harbor  waters  were  begun.    The  object 
of  this  work  was  to  ascertain  the  intensity  of  sewage  pollution  in  various  parts 
of  the  harbor  and  obtain  a  knowledge  of   the  little  understood   phenomena  of 
digestion  of  sewage  by  these  waters.    A  laboratory  was  established  in  the  New 
York  Aquarium  and  a  number  of  analytical  experts  with  boats  and  other  ap- 
paratus were  employed.     This  work  continued  for  several  months  at  the  end 
of  which  time  the  appropriation  of  $10,000  which  had  been  granted  to  the  Com- 
mission was  exhausted. 

(2)  Meetings  were  held  with  members  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Sewerage 
Commission  looking  to  co-operation  from  New  Jersey  in  the  studies  which  New 
York  had  undertaken.     These  negotiations  were  discontinued  after  it  was  found 
that  the  State  Sewerage  Commission  was  a  moribund  body  and  without  juris- 
diction over  a  large  part  of  the  New  Jersey  territory. 

(3)  The  Bronx  valley  sewer  project    was    investigated,    and    communica- 
tions, wherein  the  Commission  protested  against  the  discharge  of  crude  sewage 
into  the  Hudson  river  from  the  Bronx  valley  district  and  recommended   that 


MOVEMENT  FOE  A  CLEAN  HARBOE  129 

provision  be  made  for  purifying  this  sewage,  were  addressed  to  the  Bronx 
Valley  Sewerage  Commission,  the  State  Engineer  and  Surveyor,  and  the  State 
Commissioner  of  Health. 

Soon  after  the  Metropolitan  Commission  was  reorganized  a  report  wag  sent  to  the 
Mayor  in  which  the  Commissioners  expressed  their  view  of  the  importance  of  the  work 
to  be  done  and  the  time  and  money  required  to  complete  it  in  accordance  with  the  speci- 
fications of  the  Act  of  Legislature  which  had  provided  for  the  creation  of  the  Commis- 
sion in  1906.  The  reorganized  Commission  reported  on  March  16,  1908,  that,  in  their 
opinion,  the  objects  to  be  accomplished  were  important  to  the  people  of  New  York,  but 
that  the  Commission  was  without  funds  and  could  do  little  unless  more  money  and  time 
were  provided. 

Increased  Appropriation  and  Extension  of  Time.  The  original  legislative  Act  per- 
mitted the  city  to  appropriate  f  15,000  for  the  Commission's  use.  The  reorganized  com- 
mission found  that,  of  this  sum,  $10,000  had  been  spent  and  $5,000  remained  to  be 
appropriated  by  concurrent  action  of  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  and 
Board  of  Aldermen.  The  Commission  reported  that  if  the  final  $5,000  was  appropri- 
ated there  would  be  enough  funds  to  meet  the  outstanding  obligations,  but  there  would 
not  be  sufficient  means  with  which  to  complete  the  work. 

It  was  estimated  that  the  sum  necessary  to  finish  the  investigation  would  be 
$75,000,  and  that  the  time  required  would  be  about  two  years. 

Soon  after  this  report  was  made  a  legislative  bill  providing  for  an  additional  ap- 
propriation and  extending  the  life  of  the  commission  to  May,  1910,  was  drafted  by  the 
Corporation  Counsel  and  introduced  into  the  Legislature  by  request  of  the  Mayor.  This 
bill  was  passed  by  the  Legislature  April  23,  and  is  Chapter  422  of  the  Laws  of  1908.  It 
follows: 

CHAPTER  422,  NEW  YORK  STATE  LAWS  OF  1908 

An  Act  to  amend  chapter  six  hundred  and  thirty-nine  of  the  laws  of  nine- 
teen hundred  and  six,  entitled  "  An  act  to  provide  for  a  commission  to  investi- 
gate and  consider  means  for  protecting  the  waters  of  New  York  bay  and  vicinity 
against  pollution  and  authorizing  the  city  of  New  York  to  pay  the  expenses 
thereof,"  in  relation  to  the  term  of  said  commission,  compensation  for  its  mem- 
bers and  funds  to  be  raised  in  said  city  for  the  purposes  of  said  act. 

Became  a  law,  May  20,  1908,  with  the  approval  of  the  Governor.  Passed, 
three-fifths  being  present. 

Accepted  by  the  City. 

The  People  of  the  State  of  New  York  represented  in  Senate  and  Assembly, 
do  enact  as  follows: 

Section  1.  Sections  five,  six  and  seven  of  chapter  six  hundred  and  thirty- 
nine  of  the  laws  of  nineteen  hundred  and  six,  entitled  "An  act  to  provide  for  a 


130  DATA    COLLECTED 

commission  to  investigate  and  consider  means  for  protecting  the  waters  of  New 
York  bay  and  vicinity  against  pollution  and  authorizing  the  city  of  New  York  to 
pay  the  expenses  thereof,"  are  hereby  amended  to  read  respectively  as  follows : 

Sec.  5.  The  commission  shall  terminate  on  May  first,  nineteen  hundred 
and  ten,  and  all  maps,  results  or  surveys  and  examinations,  estimates  and  other 
papers  and  matter  acquired  by  the  New  York  commission  shall  be  properly  in- 
dexed and  labeled  and  turned  over  to  the  board  of  estimate  and  apportionment 
of  New  York  city. 

Sec.  6.  The  members  of  the  commission  shall  receive  a  compensation  of 
three  thousand  dollars  per  annum  for  their  personal  services  and  expenses. 

Sec.  7.  Corporate  stock  of  the  city  of  New  York  may  be  authorized  to  be 
issued  by  the  board  of  estimate  and  apportionment  without  the  concurrence  or 
approval  of  any  other  board  or  public  body  in  accordance  with  section  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty-nine  of  the  Greater  New  York  charter,  in  order  to  provide  the 
means  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  act,  but  not  to  exceed  the  sum  of 
seventy-five  thousand  dollars  in  any  one  year.  All  payments  from  the  sale  of 
such  corporate  stock  shall  be  made  upon  proper  vouchers,  having  the  authoriza- 
tion of  the  chairman  and  secretary  or  by  the  signatures  of  a  majority  of  the 
commission  herein  provided  for,  and  in  accordance  with  the  laws,  regulations 
and  practice  now  in  force  for  the  payment  of  money  by  the  comptroller  of  the 
city  of  New  York. 

Sec.  2.     This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 

The  new  Act  gave  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  power  to  appropriate, 
without  the  concurrence  of  any  other  board  or  public  body,  $75,000  a  year  for  the  use  of 
the  Commission.  A  single  appropriation,  which  it  was  estimated  by  the  commissioners 
would  be  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  entire  work,  was  granted  by  the  Board  of  Estimate 
and  Apportionment  June  15,  1908,  when  $75,000  was  set  aside  for  the  use  of  the  Com- 
mission. 

Unavoidable  Delays.  Although  seriously  handicapped  by  difficulties  some  of  which 
were  apparently  unavoidable  in  the  conduct  of  a  temporary  commission,  especially  the 
necessity  of  employing  the  elaborate  machinery  designed  by  the  City  for  the  admin- 
istration of  its  great  permanent  departments,  by  delays  inseparable  from  civil  service 
jurisdiction,  and  by  the  fact  that  its  period  of  existence  was  nearly  half  gone  before  a 
way  could  be  found  to  pay  employees,  the  work  for  which  the  Commission  was  created 
has  been  completed  within  the  period  of  time  and  for  the  sum  of  money  which  had 
originally  been  estimated  by  them  to  be  sufficient. 

In  April,  1908,  the  Commissioners  undertook  to  meet  the  obligations  of  the  Com- 
mission as  at  first  constituted,  including  the  payment  of  salaries,  office  rent,  boat  hire, 
etc.,  by  seeking  a  final  appropriation  of  $5,000  from  the  $15,000  which  the  Board  of  Es- 
timate and  Apportionment  and  the  Board  of  Aldermen  were  authorized  by  the  first  leg- 
islative Act  to  set  aside  for  the  Commission's  use.  This  undertaking  was  practically 


MOVEMENT  FOR  A  CLEAN  HARBOR  131 

completed  six  months  later.  Delay  was  caused  by  the  Aldermen  in  granting  the  money. 
The  Board  of  Estimate  gave  consent  to  the  appropriation  at  once,  but  the  Board  of 
Aldermen  did  not  concur  in  the  matter  until  September  29, 1908.  No  claims  against  the 
City  on  account  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  are  now  known  to  exist. 

Payment  of  Employees.  The  granting  of  the  appropriation  of  $75,000  by  the  Board 
of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  in  June  did  not  at  once  permit  an  active  prosecution  of 
the  Commission's  work.  It  was  seven  months  later  before  the  Commissioners  were  able 
to  ascertain  from  the  legal  department  of  the  City  and  the  courts  how  they  could  law- 
fully employ  the  assistants  required  to  do  the  work  of  investigation  and  pay  their  sal- 
aries. 

Fixing  of  Salaries.  Question  as  to  the  right  of  the  Commission  to  fix  the  salaries  of 
employees  was  raised  by  the  Comptroller  in  a  letter  which  he  addressed  to  the  Corpora- 
tion Counsel  under  date  of  August  20,  1908.  The  Comptroller  stated  that  the  money  to 
pay  salaries  had  been  duly  provided  and  that  a  payroll  containing  the  names  of  three 
employees  had  received  the  required  certificate  of  the  Municipal  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sion, but  the  salaries  of  the  positions  had  not  been  fixed  by  the  Board  of  Aldermen,  as 
the  Comptroller  thought  perhaps  they  should  be,  in  accordance  with  Section  56  of  the 
City  Charter.  This  section  provides  that  the  salaries  of  all  City  officers  paid  out  of  the 
City  treasury  shall  be  fixed  by  the  Board  of  Aldermen. 

Answer  to  the  Comptroller's  letter  was  made  by  the  Corporation  Counsel  October 
26, 1908,  to  the  effect  that  several  members  of  the  Law  Department  had  been  considering 
the  question  and  that  they  could  not  agree  upon  an  answer  to  the  question  raised.  In 
the  opinion  of  the  Corporation  Counsel,  the  correct  answer  should  be  left  to  the  deter- 
mination of  the  courts. 

Upon  advice  from  the  Corporation  Counsel,  the  matter  was  then  placed  before  the 
courts  in  an  action  for  a  writ  of  mandamus  to  compel  the  Comptroller  to  pay  the  salary 
of  one  of  the  employees.  This  was  a  test  case. 

Case  of  Allen  vs.  Metz.  The  case  was  known  as  Allen  versus  Metz.  Decision  was 
rendered  December  29,  1908,  by  Justice  Seabury,  Part  I,  Special  Term,  Supreme  Court. 
The  decision  was  to  the  effect  that  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  was  a  State 
Commission  and  that  the  provision  of  Section  56  of  the  City  Charter,  was  consequently 
inapplicable.  An  order  and  writ  of  mandamus  were  therefore  granted  by  the  court  and 
\\cre  in  due  form  served  upon  the  Comptroller.  The  salaries  of  the  Commission's  em- 
ployees were  first  paid  by  the  Comptroller  out  of  the  appropriation  of  $75,000  January 
11,  1909. 

Civil  Service  Requirements.  Question  was  then  raised  as  to  the  proper  civil  service 
jurisdiction  which  should  be  exercised  over  the  Commission's  employees.  If  the  Com- 


132  DATA    COLLECTED 

mission  was  a  State  board,  should  its  employees  be  obtained  through  the  State  Civil  Ser- 
vice Commission  or  through  the  Municipal  Civil  Service  Commission?  In  a  communi- 
cation transmitted  to  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  February  1, 1909,  the  Cor- 
poration Counsel  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  employees  of  the  commission  should 
continue  to  be,  as  they  had  been,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Municipal  Civil  Service 
Commission.  This  opinion  removed  the  last  obstacle  to  the  employment  of  the  technical 
and  clerical  help  required  and  made  possible  a  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  Commis- 
sion's work. 

The  delay  and  uncertainty  concerning  the  ability  of  the  Commission  to  pay 
the  salaries  of  employees  had  produced  an  embarrassing  situation.  Of  the  28  months 
originally  allotted  for  the  completion  of  the  Commission's  work,  13  had  been  lost  in  as- 
certaining how  the  appropriation  could  lawfully  be  spent. 

The  Commissioners  had  not,  however,  passed  the  long  delay  in  idleness.  Work  had 
been  undertaken  and  was  being  prosecuted  as  rapidly  as  circumstances  permitted.  A  few 
faithful  employees  were  attending  to  duties  assigned  them  with  courage  and  loyalty. 

Conclusion  of  Work  Required  Under  the  Act.  A  preliminary  report,  embodying  the 
principal  findings  and  recommendations  of  the  Commission  was  made  to  the  Mayor 
under  date  of  March  1st,  1910.  The  present  volume  is  submitted  as  the  full  and  com- 
plete report  called  for  by  the  legislative  Acts  under  which  this  Commission  has  existed. 


CHAPTER   II 

PRESENT   AND   FUTURE   POPULATION    OF    THE    METROPOLITAN 

DISTRICT   AND   THE   VOLUME   OF  SEWAGE  DISCHARGED 

INTO   NEW   YORK   HARBOR 

POPULATION 

Introduction.  The  object  of  this  study  was  to  forecast  as  nearly  as  practicable 
the  future  population  of  the  metropolitan  district  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
and  the  distribution  of  population  within  the  several  municipalities  and  rural 
districts  in  that  territory.  The  furthest  date  for  which  a  forecast  could  be  made 
which  would  seem  likely  to  prove  reasonably  correct  appeared  to  be  about  30  years. 
The  estimates  were  accordingly  prepared  to  cover  that  period. 

The  metropolitan  district  referred  to  comprises  the  whole  or  part  of  84  cities  and 
towns  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey  situated  within  a  boundary  line  fixed  in  April, 
1909,  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  of  New  York  for  the  purposes  of  its 
investigations.  This  boundary  varies  in  distance  from  the  New  York  City  Hall  between 
14  and  28  miles  and  lies  at  an  average  distance  of  about  20  miles.  The  limits  were 
drawn  so  as  to  include  the  territory  whose  drainage  flows  directly  into  New  York 
harbor  and  within  which  the  density  of  population  was  such  as  to  make  a  compre- 
hensive treatment  of  the  sewage  problem  necessary. 

Before  making  original  estimates  a  study  and  comparison  of  the  growth  of  New 
York  and  vicinity  as  forecast  by  different  authorities  was  made. 

Estimates  of  John  K.  Frccwan  (Jontained  in  a  Report  on  New  York's  Water  8uj)- 
l>ly,  1900.  Mr.  Freeman's  figures  have  proved  to  be  remarkably  accurate  up  to  the 
present  time,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  were  made  at  a  time  when  the  last  report 
of  a  complete  census  was  for  the  year  1890.  Mr.  Freeman's  detailed  estimates  for  The 
City  of  New  York  for  1905  of  3,980,000  was  only  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  below  the  cor- 
rected figure  obtained  by  the  actual  enumerators  of  the  State. 

Added  interest  attaches  to  these  figures  because  they  are  the  lowest  of  all  the  esti- 
mates examined.  The  author's  evident  object  was  to  give  a  conservative  opinion  con- 
cerning the  City's  growth. 

His  estimates  appear  to  be  based  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  past  growth  of  the 
citv  of  London,  whose  increase  for  the  last  century  has  been  about  19V.,  per  cent  per 


134 


DATA    COLLECTED 


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ESTIMATED  POPULATIONS  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY 

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POPULATION    AND    SEWAGE    OF    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT        135 

decade.  A  prospective  growth  of  metropolitan  New  York  of  from  36  per  cent,  per 
decade  decreasing  to  15  per  cent  per  decade  by  1940  has  been  assumed. 

It  is  possible  that  Mr.  Freeman's  estimate  for  1940  may  prove  somewhat  low. 

Estimates  of  Dr.  Walter  Laidlaw  Published  in  "  Federation,"  May,  1908.  Dr.  Laid- 
huv's  figures  for  The  City  of  New  York  are  slightly  larger  than  those  of  Mr.  Freeman, 
his  minimum  being  two  and  one-half  per  cent,  above  what  Mr.  Freeman  terms  the 
greatest  probable  population. 

Dr.  Laidlaw  attaches  considerable  importance  to  the  relative  growth  of  New  York 
compared  with  the  entire  United  States,  the  probable  distribution  of  future  Immigrants 

* 

and  an  increasing  trend  of  population  westward  due  to  the  development  of  transporta- 
tion facilities.  From  a  consideration  of  these  influences  he  believes  that  the  future  in- 
crease of  the  city  will  be  arithmetical,  not  geometrical ;  and  to  get  a  minimum  for  1940 
which  he  also  considers  the  most  probable  figure,  he  simply  multiplies  the  increase 
found  for  1900  to  1905  by  seven  and  adds  the  product  to  the  1905  population.  To  get 
a  maximum  figure  for  1940  he  adds  to  the  minimum  estimates  three  and  one-half  times 
what  he  calls  the  decade  surplus,  which  is  twice  the  increase  from  1900  to  1905  over 
the  increase  from  1890  to  1900. 

Dr.  Laidlaw's  maximum  and  minimum  figures  have  been  considered  conservative 
by  some,  but  they  are  the  result  of  15  years'  impartial  study  of  population  and  are 
based  upon  an  unusually  broad  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

Estimates  of  the  Board  of  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  New  York.  The  Board  for 
an  additional  water  supply  for  The  City  of  New  York  has  compiled  estimates  upon  a 
somewhat  unique  and  interesting  basis.  Manhattan  Island  is  presumed  to  cease 
growth  after  a  total  of  3,000,000  inhabitants  has  been  reached.  The  future  rate  of 
growth  of  Brooklyn  is  based  upon  the  rate  which  has  obtained  in  Manhattan.  The 
future  rate  of  growth  for  The  Bronx  is  based  upon  the  rate  of  growth  which  obtained 
in  Brooklyn  when  the  latter's  transit  facilities  were  at  a  similar  stage  of  development 
to  those  in  The  Bronx.  The  rate  of  growth  of  Queens  is  expected  to  resemble  the  rate 
of  The  Bronx  beginning  with  the  opening  of  transit  lines  in  The  Bronx. 

Estimates  of  the  New  York  Telephone  Company.  The  engineers  of  the  New  York 
Telephone  Company  have  estimated  future  growth  by  first  estimating  the  future  popu- 
lation of  the  whole  country  and  then  projecting  into  the  future  the  past  percentage  of 
this  total  found  in  The  City  of  New  York  and  other  parts  of  the  metropolitan  district, 
determining  last  the  figures  for  the  smallest  subdivisions. 

The  method  followed  was  similar  to  that  employed  by  Dr.  Laidlaw  but  assuming  a 
more  rapid  growth  for  the  United  States  and  a  larger  proportion  of  this  growth  taking 
place  in  New  York  and  vicinity.  The  results  are  therefore  in  excess  of  Dr.  Laidlaw's. 


136 


DATA   COLLECTED 


POPULATION    AND    SEWAGE    OF  METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT        137 

Miscellaneous  Estimates  for  Parts  of  the  Metropolitan  District.  The  report  of  the 
Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  for  1908  contains  estimates  of  population  for  30 
localities  within  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  district  for  the  years  1911  and  1940.  Of  these 
places,  15  were  divided  into  from  two  to  35  sewer  districts,  each  of  whose  population 
was,  apparently,  estimated  separately  and  these  were  then  added  together  for  the  whole 
city  or  town.  The  1911  estimates  appear  to  be  based  on  past  growth,  but  those  for  1940 
are  in  most  cases  so  large  that  they  would  seem  to  represent  the  ultimate  population  of 
the  district  to  be  provided  for  in  designing  the  sewers. 

The  estimates  of  future  population  in  the  Bronx  valley  sewer  district  and  in  the 
drainage  area  of  the  joint  outlet  sewer  of  Essex  and  Union  Counties  of  New  Jersey  are 
ultimate  figures  and  do  not  necessarily  represent  the  populations  which  may  exist  in 
these  areas  in  1940. 

None  of  the  preceding  estimates  is  suitable  for  use  by  the  Metropolitan  Commis- 
sion :  some  are  not  detailed  enough ;  others  do  not  cover  the  entire  territory. 

Growth  of  New  York  City  Compared  with  that  of  the  Whole  Country  and  of  Other 
Cities.  No  growth  should  be  assumed  which  requires  too  large  a  percentage  of  the 
population  of  the  whole  country  to  be  located  in  New  York.  Chicago  and  the  23 
cities  west  of  it  having  over  50,000  inhabitants  each  in  1900,  had,  taken  alto- 
gether, 2,015,208  inhabitants  in  1890,  while  the  five  boroughs  of  The  City  of  New  York, 
as  at  present  constituted,  had  1,911.689.  In  the  20  years  following  1880  New  York 
gained  1,525,504,  while  the  24  western  cities  just  mentioned  gained  3,078,806. 

In  other  words,  the  western  gain  was  twice  the  gain  of  The  City  of  New  York. 
The  cities  of  the  country  may  be  divided  into  groups,  each  section  containing  about 
the  same  population  as  The  City  of  New  York  in  1880.  The  first  group  comprises  the 
four  largest  cities.  The  following  group  the  next  ten  largest  and  the  third  group  the 
next  34.  In  the  20  years  from  1880  to  1900  the  first  and  third  of  these  groups  grew 
faster  than  The  City  of  New  York  and  only  the  second  group  grew  slower. 

Effect  of  Migration.  Migration  has  always  played  an  important  part  in  the  in- 
crease in  population  of  New  York  and  is  practically  certain  to  do  so  hereafter.  Being 
the  leading  port  of  entry  for  the  United  States  changes  in  the  population  of  the  whole 
country,  so  far  as  they  are  affected  by  immigration  from  Europe,  are  reflected  with 
much  certainty  in  the  population  statistics  of  New  York. 

The  number  of  immigrants  landed  at  New  York  in  the  past  has  reached  one  million 
in  a  single  year,  or  about  ten  times  the  increase  of  population;  but  this  high  figure 
does  not  seem  likely  to  recur. 

Movements  of  population  from  one  part  of  the  metropolitan  district  to  another  pro- 
duce marked  variations  between  the  resident  and  non-resident  population.  From  all 


138 


DATA    COLLECTED 


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POPULATION   AND    SEWAGE    OF    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT        139 

points  of  the  compass  steam  and  electric  railways  bring  business  people  to  the  com- 
mercial centres  in  the  morning  and  carry  them  back  to  the  residence  sections  at  night. 
Statistics  have  been  furnished  the  Commission  by  the  various  transportation  com- 
panies showing  the  passengers  brought  into  Manhattan  from  outlying  territory  daily, 

as  follows: 

From  Long  Island 413,500 

From  New  Jersey 203,800 

From  Staten  Island 17,200 

From  North  of  The  Bronx 42,900 


677,400 

This  is  seen  to  add  one-third  to  the  resident  population  of  Manhattan  daily. 
The  present  increase  of  transient  population  is  estimated  at  four  per  cent,  annually. 

Possible  Reduction  of  Congestion  of  Population.  A  movement  against  congestion 
of  population  exists  but  it  is  still  of  unknown  strength.  It  may  in  time  have  a  visible 
effect,  though  a  spreading  out  of  population  may  not  change  the  total  of  the  metropol- 
itan district,  but  only  tend  to  distribute  people  more  evenly  throughout  the  district. 

Recent  rapid  transit  developments  around  New  York  are  important  to  the  differ- 
ent localities,  but  they  do  not  seem  likely  to  materially  affect  the  ratio  of  the  city  popu- 
lation to  that  of  the  surrounding  territory  as  a  whole,  as  is  popularly  believed.  The 
electrification  of  steam  lines  of  railways  is  going  on  in  all  directions  in  the  metropolitan 
district,  and  there  may  be  a  very  rapid  accretion  of  population  from  this  or  other 
causes  in  particular  districts;  such,  for  instance,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  the  proposed 
Jamaica  bay  improvements  and  the  area  directly  tributary  to  the  Queensboro  Bridge 
in  Long  Island  City. 

Analysis  of  Previous  Estimates.  Most  of  the  estimates  made  by  other  authorities 
which  were  considered  in  the  studies  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  relate 
particularly  to  the  growth  of  The  City  of  New  York.  A  feature  of  some  of  the  esti- 
mates was  that  no  account  was  taken  of  the  New  York  and  New  Jersey  State  cen- 
suses, the  results  being  based  wholly,  or  chiefly,  on  Federal  enumerations.  There  seems 
to  have  been  a  feeling  that  the  State  enumerations  were  not  as  carefully  made  as  those 
of  the  general  government.  For  the  year  1905,  however,  the  New  York  State  census 
was  made  under  the  direction  of  an  expert  who  later  became  Chief  Statistician  for 
Population  of  the  United  States  Census  Bureau.  In  the  Metropolitan  Commission's 
estimates  it  has  seemed  desirable  to  use  the  latest  State  data.  In  fact,  they  have  been 
indispensable  for  about  25  New  Jersey  towns,  for  these  places  have  come  into  existence 
since  the  United  States  Census  of  1890. 


140 


DATA  COLLECTED 


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90 


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YEARS-1800  I8ZO  1840  I860  1880  1900  1320  1940 


PERCENTAGE        OF         POPULATION 


OF 


NEW   YORK    CITY     IN     EACH     BOROUGH 


POPULATION    AND    SEWAGE    OF  METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT        141 

Methods  of  Estimating  Population  Employed  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Com- 
mission. Preliminary  estimates  of  future  population  were  based  mainly  on  United 
States  Census  figures  on  the  ground  that,  being  made  on  the  same  basis,  they  furnished 
a  fair  comparison  between  the  growths  of  municipalities  in  the  two  States  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey.  State  census  figures  were  used  for  the  20  recently  formed  New 
Jersey  towns. 

Where  towns  have  been  formed  since  the  New  York  and  New  Jersey  State  cen- 
suses of  1905  were  made  no  estimates  were  obtainable.  Where  towns  were  formed  be- 
tween 1900  and  1905  the  future  growth  of  the  original  undivided  area  was  calculated, 
after  which  the  percentage  for  each  division  of  the  area  as  found  for  1905  was  taken 
for  succeeding  five-year  periods  and  was  used  as  the  population  of  each  place. 

Estimates  were  first  made  based  upon  a  geometrical  increase — that  is,  an  in- 
crease of  a  uniform  percentage — every  five  or  ten  years.  As  growth  in  a  geometrical 
ratio  is  not  supported  by  the  growth  of  Manhattan,  New  York  or  the  metropolitan 
district  in  the  past,  figures  for  which  were  obtained  and  plotted,  this  method  was  re- 
jected. Allowing  for  a  gradual  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  annual  growth  as  found 
in  the  past,  the  forecast  population  for  1940  came  so  near  to  that  obtained  by  adopt- 
ing the  arithmetical  increase  for  each  five-year  interval  found  for  the  interval  1900 
to  1905,  that  the  revised  figures  were  determined  in  this  way. 

It  was  observed  that  the  average  rate  of  growth  of  a  town  bore  a  certain  rela- 
tion to  the  density  of  population.  When  a  certain  neighborhood  reaches  a  point 
where  the  population  will  be  too  dense  for  that  class  of  neighborhood  the  rate  of  in- 
crease decreases.  In  certain  parts  of  Manhattan,  indeed,  it  is  probable  that  there 
will  be  no  further  increase. 

The  final  estimates  were  based  upon  the  known  increases  in  past  years  as  shown 
by  the  census  enumerations  of  the  United  States  Government,  and  the  States  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  by  projecting  into  the  future  rates  which  have  occurred  in  the 
past  in  communities  of  similar  size.  The  method  of  applying  this  was  as  follows: 

The  rate  of  increase  was  ascertained  for  towns  of  different  sizes  and  for  assembly 
districts  and  wards  of  different  density  of  population.  This  was  done  in  order  to 
find  the  proper  percentage  of  increase  to  use  in  each  interval  of  five  years  for  each 
of  the  subdivisions  (town,  ward,  etc.)  of  the  metropolitan  district.  This  increase,  it 
was  assumed,  would  be  similar  for  towns  of  approximately  the  same  size.  The  re- 
sults so  obtained  were  plotted  and  are  shown  in  a  graphic  way  by  diagrams  which 
accompany  this  report,  by  Table  I,  and  by  the  following  general  summary: 

Summary  of  Results.  The  total  population  in  the  metropolitan  district  in  1905 
was  5,332,000.  By  1940  it  will  probably  reach  11,800,000. 


142 


DATA   COLLECTED 


600,000 


500,000 


400,000 


300,000 


200,000 


100,000 


1900 


1910  1320 

YEARS 


1930 


NEWARK 


JERSEY  CITY 


YONKERS 

BAYONNE 
ELIZABETH 
PATERSON 
PASSAIC 
PERTH  AMBOY 


1940 


POPULATIONS     OF     CERTAIN         CITIES 

IN 

THE      METROPOLITAN        DISTRICT 


POPULATION   AND    SEWAGE    OF    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT        U3 

It  is  probable  that  the  population  of  the  metropolitan  district  will  increase  for 
the  next  30  years  as  rapidly  as  if  the  present  population  of  Indianapolis  were  added 
annually. 

In  1903  the  population  of  the  metropolitan  district  was  equivalent  to  that  of  the 
cities  of  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  Boston,  Baltimore  and  Columbus  com- 
bined, or  to  that  of  Paris  and  Berlin  united. 

That  part  of  the  metropolitan  district  lying  in  Ne\v  York,  in  1905  contained  51 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  population  of  the  State. 

That  part  of  the  metropolitan  district  lying  in  New  Jersey,  in  1905  contained  56 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  population  of  that  State. 

The  population  of  The  City  of  New  York,  which  was  4,000,000  in  1905,  will 
probably  reach  8,600,000  by  1940. 

Outside  of  The  City  of  New  York,  but  in  the  metropolitan  district  of  this  State, 
the  population  in  1905  was  128,000  and  will  probably  reach  400,000  by  1940. 

The  metropolitan  district  of  New  Jersey,  including  all  municipalities,  contained 
1,200,000  in  1905,  and  will  probably  contain  2,800,000  by  1940. 

There  were,  in  1905,  ten  cities  in  the  metropolitan  district  o'f  New  Jersey  hav- 
ing populations  in  excess  of  25,000.  By  1940  these  will  probably  contain  about 
1,900,000  persons.  The  largest  of  these  ten  cities  were  Newark  and  Jersey  City, 
whose  populations  were  283,000  and  232,000  respectively  in  1905. 

By  1940  there  will  probably  be  nine  cities  in  Hudson  County,  seven  towns  in 
Essex  County,  three  in  Passaic  County  and  one  each  in  Middlesex  and  Union  Coun- 
ties, or  21  New  Jersey  cities  having  populations  of  over  25,000.  Of  these  Newark, 
Jersey  City,  Bayonne,  Paterson,  Passaic,  Elizabeth  and  Perth  Amboy  will  have  over 
100,000  each. 

In  addition  to  the  resident  population  of  about  two  and  one-fourth  millions,  Man- 
hattan receives  from  outside  about  three-fourths  of  a  million  non-residents  daily. 


144 


DATA    COLLECTED 


TABLE  I 

SUMMARY  OF  POPULATION 


1905 

194 

0 

New  York— 
Manhattan  

2  102  928 

4  143  200 

The  Bronx  

271  592 

979  000 

Brooklyn  

1,355  106 

2  730  100 

Queens  

197  838 

682  400 

Richmond  

72,939 

131  400 

The  City  of  New  York  

4,000,403 

8,666,100 

Mt    Vernon      

24  930 

80  300 

New  Rochelle  

20  387 

65  700 

Yonkers  

61  414 

193  500 

Part  of  Westchester  County  and  Nassau  County 

21  665 

69  400 

Metropolitan  New  York,  exclusive  of  City  of  New  York.  .  . 

128,396 

408,900 

Metropolitan  New  York 

4  128  799 

9  075  000 

New  Jersey  — 
Bayonne  ...    . 

42  262 

157  000 

East  Orange     

25  175 

63  460 

Elizabeth  

60  509 

155  479 

Hoboken  .    . 

65468 

92  500 

Jersey  City  ... 

232  699 

396  000 

Newark  

283,289 

597,600 

Orange  

26,101 

37,035 

37837 

128  500 

Paterson  

111,529 

135,500 

Perth  Amboy  

25,895 

117534 

Cities  of  over  25  000  in  1905 

910  764 

1  880  608 

Metropolitan  New  Jersey,  exclusive  of  cities  of  over  25,000\ 

292,623 

910,792 

in  1905  / 

1  203  387 

2,791,400 

Metropolitan   district  

5,332,186 

11,866,400 

POPULATION   AND    SEWAGE    OF    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT        145 

VOLUME  OF  SEWAGE  DISCHARGED  INTO  NEAV  YORK  HARBOR 

The  volume  of  sewage  produced  in  any  district  depends  primarily  on  the  water 
consumption,  including  that  obtained  from  wells  or  other  private  supplies.  In  some 
towns,  such  as  Patersoii,  these  private  supplies  furnishing  artesian  water  for  manu- 
facturing purposes,  such  as  dye  works,  silk  mills,  rolling  mills,  breweries,  etc.,  consti- 
tute an  important  proportion  of  the  total  amount  of  water  used.  If  discharged  into 
the  sewers  as  is  customary,  it  adds  to  the  volume  of  sewage,  although  it  may  not  in- 
crease the  total  amount  of  the  organic  constituents  of  the  sewage. 

Aside  from  the  water  supply  the  flow  of  sewage  may  be  materially  increased  by 
the  infiltration  of  ground  water  through  leaky  sewers,  or  of  surface  waters  through 
manhole  covers.  In  the  case  of  combined  sewers  the  flow  is  enormously  increased 
for  short  periods  during  storms. 

On  the  other  hand  the  volume  of  sewage  carried  by  the  sewers  is  diminished, 
first,  by  the  fact  that  suburban  or  rural  areas  are  not  provided  with  sewers,  their 
liquid  wastes  going  either  to  cesspools  or  on  to  the  land;  second,  because  in  many 
instances  manufacturing  wastes  are  discharged  directly  to  the  nearest  stream  with- 
out passing  through  a  sewer;  third,  by  leakage  from  defective  sewers  into  the  soil, 
and  fourth,  on  account  of  water  used  for  street  sprinkling  and  street  cleaning  pur- 
poses. 

In  a  combination  of  towns  such  as  is  represented  by  those  of  the  metropolitan 
district  it  is  believed  a  fair  general  estimate  of  the  volume  of  sewage  may  be  de- 
termined with  the  following  assumptions: 

1st.  That  the  infiltration  of  surface  and  ground  water  to  some  sewers  and  the 
water  used  from  private  supplies  will  about  offset  that  lost  by  leakage  or  by  the 
ordinary  direct  disposal  to  streams  and  by  street  sprinkling. 

2nd.  That  where  an  unusual  discharge  directly  to  streams  is  made  from  mills, 
etc.,  due  allowance  be  made  for  this. 

3rd.  That  the  run-off  directly  due  to  storms  be  disregarded  by  assuming  the 
dry-weather  flow  only  of  combined  sewerg. 

4th.     That  districts  without  sewerage  facilities  be  omitted  from  consideration. 

From  these  assumptions  it  follows  that  for  the  general  purposes  of  this  estimate 
the  volume  of  sewage  may  be  taken  as  equivalent  to  the  water  supply,  corrected  for 
any  excessive  discharge  from  other  sources,  or  diversion  to  other  outlets,  by  mills,  etc. 

In  this  way  fluctuations  due  to  non-resident  population  are  accounted  for  without 
determining  the  number  of  people,  the  water  supply  being  known. 

Applying  this  method  to  the  metropolitan  district  the  figures  given  in  Table  II  are 
obtained. 


146 


DATA  COLLECTED 


TABLE  II 

VOLUMES  OF  SEWAGE  PRODUCED  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT 


Million  gallons  per  day 


1910 


1940 


New  York  State- 
Manhattan  343 

The  Bronx 45 

Brooklyn 160 

Queens 27 

Richmond 8 

The  City  of  New  York 5831 

Mt.  Vernon 33 

New  Rochelle 1 3 

Yonkers 9* 

Bronx  Valley 3s 

599 
New  Jersey — 

Bergen  County : 

New  Barbadoes  (Hackensack) 1.0' 

Passaic  valley  sewer  district 5.7* 

Balance  of  Bergen  County  in  metropolitan  district. 


Union  County  : 

Elizabeth 

Rahway 

Westfield  and  Cranford. 
Joint  outlet  sewer 


Essex  County  : 

Passaic  valley  sewer  district. 

Newark 

Orange 

East  Orange 

Balance  of  Passaic  valley  district  in  Essex  County. 


6.04 
l.O1 
l.O1 
8.07 


52.0* 
4.51 
4. 11 

14.7' 


650 
195 
560' 
145 
30 


1,580.0 

9.7 

3.2 

27.4 

9.1 

1,629.4 

1.41 

41.3* 

3.71 


2.01 
13. 9l 


93. 71 
10. 81 
12. 11 
42.4' 


Based  on  the  consumption  of  water. 

Eng.  News,  Apr.  29, 1909. 

N.  Y.  State  Btf  Hlth.,  1907. 

U.  S.  Census  Bui.  105,  1907. 

Letter  G.  R.  Byrne,  Ch.  Engr.,  May  5, 1909. 

Rep.  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Com.,  1908. 

Letter  from  Alexander  Potter,  Nov.  16,  1908. 


POPULATION    AND    SEWAGE    OF    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT        147 

TABLE     Il—V<mtiinted 


New  Jersey — 

Hudson  County  : 

Jersey  City 

Hoboken 

Bayonne ' 

West  Hoboken 

Union 

North  Bergen 

Weehawken 

West  New  York 

Passaic  valley  sewer  district. 

Kearney 

Harrison 

East  Newark 

Miscellaneous 

Middlesex  County  : 

Perth  Amboy 

Woodbridge 

Passaic  County  : 

Passaic  valley  sewer  district. 

Paterson 

Passaic 

Balance  of  Passaic  valley  sewer  district  in  Passaic  County. 


Total  for  Metropolitan  District . 


Million  gallons  per  day. 


1910 


39s 
8" 

4.33 
1s 
2s 

1.5s 
1s 
I8 

1.91 
1.81 

.6' 


3.52 


31" 
43 

4.4' 


203.0 


741.0 


1940 


54.4" 

12.9s 

22.0s 

13. 4" 

5.1s 

3.1s 

5.7s 

3.4s 

12. 81 
8.31 
1.21 
3.3' 

14.0s 
1.7' 


64. 81 
28. 11 
17. 11 


515.2 


2,144.6 


1  Rep.  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Cora.,  1908. 
a  Based  on  the  consumption  of  water. 
SU.  S.  Census,  Bui.  105,  1907. 


CHAPTER   III 
TIDAL    PHENOMENA  IN    THE    METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT 

SECTION  I 
PRINCIPAL  PHYSICAL  AND  HYDRAULIC  FEATURES 

GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

Introduction.  The  intimate  relation  between  tidal  currents  in  New  York  harbor 
and  the  dispersion  and  digestion  of  sewage  discharged  therein  made  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  these  movements  necessary. 

From  the  constantly  changing  conditions  of  the  wind,  the  relative  position  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  the  flow  of  land  water  from  the  rivers  and  the  consequent  underrun  of 
sea  water  upstream,  all  of  which  affect  to  a  material  degree  the  tidal  movements,  it  is 
evident  that  these  movements  are  complicated  and  their  prediction  subject  to  uncer- 
tainty. 

In  order  to  obtain  as  much  knowledge  of  the  tidal  phenomena  as  possible  the 
Metropolitan  Sewage  Commission  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Superintendent  of  the 
United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  June  19,  1908,  requesting  information  on 
the  specific  points  contained  in  the  following  questions: 

1.  What  is  the  volume  of  water  discharged  through  the  Narrows  in  each 
direction  at  each  tide  under  conditions  which  are  (a)  usual  and  (b)  unfavor- 
able to  a  large  net  outflow  toward  the  sea? 

2.  What  are  the  principal  current  phenomena,  at  the  Narrow's  and  at  other 
points  in  the  harbor,  which  accompany  this  discharge? 

3.  What  is  the  volume  of  water  discharged  in  each  direction  at  each  tide 
at  controlling  points  in  the  harbor,  notably  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river,  the 
East  river,  the  Harlem  river,  Kill  van  Kull,  the  Arthur  Kill  under  conditions 
which  are  (a)  usual,  and  (b)  unfavorable  to  a  large  flow  toward  the  sea? 

4.  What  are  the  main  tidal  phenomena  of  the  Passaic  river,  Gowanus  canal, 
Newtown  creek,  Bronx  river,  Rahway  river,  Jamaica  bay,  Shrewsbury  river  and 
Raritan  river? 

5.  Is  there  a  discharge  of  water  through  the  East  river  and  New  York  bay 
from  Long  Island  Sound  to  the  sea,  and  if  so,  how  great  is  it  under  (a)  usual 
conditions  and  (b)  conditions  which  are  unfavorable  to  the  discharge  of  water 
from  the  harbor? 

6.  To  what  extent  have  changes  in  depth,  width  and  location  of  channels 
and    the    construction    of    islands    and  bulkheads  affected  the  flow  of  water 
through  the  harbor? 


150  DATA    COLLECTED 

7.  In  general  terms,  what  are  the  controlling  factors  which  affect  the  flow 
of  water  in  and  out  of  New  York  harbor?     Especially  what  is  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  wind? 

8.  Would  it  be  feasible  to  establish   a  system   of    gauges  in   and  about 
New  York  which  would  permit  the  City  to  make  a  calculation  any  time  of 
the  quantities  of  water  being  carried  in  the  main  tidal  currents? 

9.  What  are  the  average,  the  maximum   and  minimum  velocities  in   each 
direction  of  the  currents  at  the  principal  points  in  New  York  harbor  taken  at 
the  time  when  each  current  is  strongest.     That  is,  how  do  the  velocities  vary 
with  different  tides  through  the  year? 

10.  What  is  the  distance  that  water  moves  in  different  parts  of  the  har- 
bor through  a  complete  tide  from  high  water  to  high  water  and  from  low  water 
to  low  water,  as  shown  by  floats,  and  what  is  the  net   movement  of  the  water 
starting  from  different  points  toward  the  sea? 

The  work  of  answering  these  questions  as  fully  and  conclusively  as  desired  in- 
volved the  collation  and  digestion  of  much  unpublished  material  in  the  hands  of  the 
Survey.  The  work  was  at  once  undertaken  and  the  answers  were  sent  to  the  Com- 
mission on  the  14th  of  August,  1908. 

This  study  brought  out  facts  regarding  the  flow  of  the  East  river  of  great  prac- 
tical importance  in  the  investigations  of  the  Commission.  It  furnished  the  basis  of 
further  theoretical  studies  and  supplementary  field  work  by  the  Commission  to  con- 
firm the  opinions  already  formed  and  to  provide  additional  information. 

The  tidal  phenomena  described  in  the  following  pages  are  based  upon  mean  con- 
ditions of  tidal  range  and  flow.  To  correct  observed  velocities  these  are  to  be  mul- 
tiplied by  the  ratio  of  the  mean  range  of  the  tide  to  the  range  on  the  day  in  question. 

The  Flow  of  Land  Water  into  the  Harbor.  The  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey  has  computed  the  amount  of  the  flow  of  land  water  into  the  harbor  from  figures 
obtained  from  the  gauging  stations  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  and  from 
the  New  York  State  Engineer  and  Surveyor.  Estimates  for  those  drainage  basins  on 
which  there  were  no  gauging  stations  Avere  made  on  the  assumption  that  the  dis- 
charge would  be  proportional  to  the  areas  drained  and  to  the  rainfall  on  these  areas. 

The  mean  annual  discharge  of  land  water  into  the  harbor  above  the  Narrows  is 
26,442  cubic  feet  per  second  or  2,284,588,800  cubic  feet  per  day.  See  Table  I. 

The  Volumes  of  Water  in  the  Harbor.  For  the  upper  bay,  Newark  bay,  and  East 
river  between  East  88th  Street,  Manhattan, and  Throgs  Neck,  the  volumes  were  de- 
termined by  dividing  the  areas  into  squares,  ascertaining  the  average  depths  as  given 
on  the  Government  chart  for  each  square  or  fraction  of  a  square  and  taking  the  areas 
of  the  volumes  thus  found.  For  the  rivers  and  kills,  information  on  the  Govern- 
ment large  scale  charts  furnished  data  for  eross-sectional  areas  and  from  these  areas 
and  the  distances  between  the  volumes  were  calculated. 


TIDAL    PHENOMENA    IN    THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT 


151 


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152 


DATA    COLLECTED 


The  shape  of  the  harbor  is  shown  on  the  various  outs  in  this  report.  The  areas  of 
the  several  main  divisions  of  the  harbor  and  an  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  water  in 
each  division  below  the  level  of  mean  low  water  are  given  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II 
HARBOR  OF  NEW  YORK 

WATER  AREAS,  DEPTHS  AND  VOLUMES  OF  WATER 


Division 

Area  in 
Square 
Miles 

Average 
Depth 
in   Feet 

Water  Volume  Below 
M.  L.  W. 
in  Cubic  Feet 

20  74 

22  43 

12  970  000  000 

Hudson  river,  from  the  Battery  to  Mt.  St.  Vincent  

14.49 

30  70 

12  330  000  000 

East  river  from  the  Battery  to  Throgs  Neck  .     

14  80 

27  03 

11  160  000  000 

Harlem  river  

0.49 

13  58 

187  700  000 

Newark  bay          

8  35 

6  63 

1  542  000  000 

Kill  van  Hull  

1.12 

23.40 

728,000,000 

Arthur  Kill       

4.93 

12  62 

1  735  000  000 

Total  water  surface          .                      ...       

64  92 

Total  volume  of  water  below  mean  low  water  

40,652  700  000 

Tidal  Ranges.  The  mean  range,  or  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  is  not  the  same  at  all 
points  in  the  harbor;  and  the  hours  at  which  high  and  low  water  occur  at  different 
points  vary  considerably.  These  differences  in  both  range  and  time  sometimes  cause 
the  tidal  currents  to  flow  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  which  would  naturally  be 
expected  from  the  stage  of  the  tide.  That  is,  there  are  places  in  the  harbor  where  tho 
flood  current  continues  to  run  after  the  water  level  begins  to  fall,  and  where  tho 
ebb  current  continues  to  run  after  the  water  level  begins  to  rise. 

These  differences  are  given  in  Table  III. 


TIDAL   PHENOMENA   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  153 

TABLE  III 
MEAN  RANGE  OF  TIDE,  AND  TIMES  OF  HIGH  AND  Low  WATER  IN  NEW  YORK  HARBOR.* 


Station 

Tidal 
Range 

Times  f 

Differences  in  Times 

Mean  Feet 

H.  W. 

L.W. 

H.  W. 

L.W. 

4.7 
4.2 
5.6 
4.6 
4.7 
4.6 
4.4 
5.3 
7.3 
4.0 

7:35 
8:34 
7:55 
8:20 
8:41 
7:41 
8:04 
9:54 
11:09 
8:49 

1:27 
2:35 
1:59 
2:28 
2:59 
1:38 
2:05 
3:39 
5:14 
2:51 

—0:29 
0:30 
—0:09 
0:17 
0:38 
—0:23 
0:00 
1:50 
3:05 
0:45 

—0:38 
0:30 
—0:06 
0:23 
0:54 
—0:28 
0:00 
1:33 
3:09 
0:46 

Tottenville  Arthur  Kill  

Passaic  Light       "          "    

Blackwells  Id   Light               

*  Tide  Tables,  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey, 
t  Solar  time  in  hours  and  minutes  after  transit  of  moon. 

The  Lunar  Day.  A  lunar  day  is  the  period  between  the  major  transits  of  the 
moon,  or  in  other  words  the  interval  between  consecutive  overhead  passages  of  the 
moon  across  the  meridian.  It  is  similar  to  a  solar  day  except  that  it  is  determined 
by  the  position  of  the  moon  instead  of  by  that  of  the  sun.  A  lunar  day  is  longer  than  a 
solar  day  by  50  minutes  and  28  seconds.  In  other  words,  one  lunar  hour  is  equal 
to  1.03505  solar  hours. 

When  separate  tidal  waves  enter  a  strait  from  opposite  ends  there  results  in  the 
strait  an  interference  tide,  or  overlapping  of  the  tidal  waves.  This  does  not  mean 
that  such  a  meeting  and  overlapping  results  in  a  superposition  of  one  wave  over  another, 
but  that  the  resulting  tide  is  due  partly  to  the  influence  of  each  wave.  The  East  river 
is  such  a  strait. 

Interference  Tides.  Interference  tides  of  this  kind  occur  in  New  York  harbor  be- 
cause separate  tidal  waves  enter,  one  from  the  sea,  past  Sandy  Hook,  and  the  other 
from  Long  Island  Sound,  past  Throgs  Neck.  These  separate  tidal  waves  are  not 
synchronous,  i.  e.,  their  periods  of  high  water  or  low  water  do  not  occur  at  the  same 
time. 

The  Sound  tide  entering  the  East  river  is  traceable  as  far  as  Governors  Island 
where,  by  counteracting  and  in  part  neutralizing  the  tidal  wave  entering  by  the  Nar- 
rows, the  resultant  range  of  the  tide  is  less  than  at  either  Throgs  Neck  or  Sandy 


DATA    COLLECTED 

Hook.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that  this  diminution  of  range  in  the  Upper  bay 
is  in  part  attributable  to  the  throttling  effect  of  passing  through  the  East  river  of 
the  one  wave  and  through  the  Narrows  of  the  other. 

At  the  southern  end  of  the  East  river  the  range  is  4.4  feet,  while  at  the  other  end 
it  is  7.2  feet.  Where  the  higher  ranges  occur  (Tlirogs  Neck)  the  tidal  wave  enters  3 
hours  and  5  minutes  later  than  the  tidal  wave  from  the  ocean  at  the  other  end  (Gov- 
ernors Island). 

The  violent  currents  at  Hell  Gate  are  due  to  these  differences  in  level,  aug- 
mented by  the  difference  in  the  stage  of  the  two  tides  and  their  occurrence  at  a  point 
where  the  channel  is  so  contracted  as  to  prevent  the  free  flow  of  water  in  its  effort  to 
restore  a  uniform  elevation  of  the  surface. 

EFFECT  OF  TIDAL  RANGE 

East  River.  In  the  East  river  the  tidal  currents  are  nearly  hydraulic,  i.  e.,  they 
flow  from  the  body  having  temporarily  the  higher  water  surface  level  to  the  one  hav- 
ing temporarily  the  lower.  In  other  words,  the  flow  is  caused  by  the  difference  in 
height  which  temporarily  exists  between  the  bodies  connected.  In  consequence,  the 
velocities  in  the  East  river  vary  very  closely  as  the  square  root  of  the  range  of  tide, 
in  accordance  with  well  known  laws  of  hydraulics. 

Hudson  River.  In  the  Hudson  river  the  tidal  currents  are  due  chiefly  to  the 
progressive  wave  motion,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  greatest  flood  and  ebb 
velocities  occur  at  nearly  the  times  of  local  high  and  IOAV  water.  In  the  Hudson  river 
the  velocities  vary  directly  as  the  range  of  tide. 

The  Kills.  In  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  in  the  Arthur  Kill  the  tidal  currents  are 
nearly  hydraulic,  and  in  them,  as  in  the  East  river,  the  velocities  vary  closely  as  the 
square  root  of  the  range  of  tide. 

The  Narrows.  In  the  Narrows  the  tidal  currents  are  partly  hydraulic  and 
partly  due  to  the  progressive  wave  motion.  In  consequence,  the  velocities  in  the  Nar- 
rows vary  approximately  midway  between  the  square  root  of  and  directly  as  the  range 
of  tide. 

The  Harlem.  In  the  Harlem  river  the  tidal  currents  are  nearly  hydraulic,  and 
are  due  to  a  temporary  difference  in  water  level  between  the  East  river  and  the  Hud- 
son river.  In  the  Harlem  river  the  velocities  vary  approximately  as  the  square  root 
of  the  range  of  the  tide.  The  velocities  of  the  current  are  variable  and  depend  on 
the  conditions  existing  at  the  times  of  observation. 

Strength  of  Current.  The  strength  of  a  tidal  cui'rent  is  that  which  obtains  when 
the  velocity  is  a  maximum.  The  strength  of  the  current  at  the  surface  does  not  bear 


TIDAL   PHENOMENA   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT 


155 


a  constant  relation  to  the  mean  strength  of  the  current  for  any  particular  section  of 
the  channel.  There  is  an  average  relationship  between  the  surface  and  mean 
strengths  of  the  current  for  each  part  of  the  harbor  under  normal  conditions,  but 
this  is  affected: 

1.  By  the  underrun ; 

2.  By  the  inertia  of  the  moving  mass  of  water,  and 

3.  By  the  reversal  of  the  tidal  current  which  takes  place  at  different  parts 
of  the  same  cross  section  at  different  times. 

Current  Velocities.  Velocities  that  may  be  expected  at  or  just  below  the  surface 
under  normal  conditions  when  the  tidal  currents  are  flowing  at  a  maximum  and  the 
mean  velocities  for  the  entire  duration  of  a  tide  are  given  ia  Table  IV. 


TABLE  IV 
VELOCITIES  ix  KNOTS  PER  HOUIJ  ix  NEW  YOKK  HAUBOK 


At  Strength 

Mean  for  Tide 

Ebb 

Flood 

Ebb 

Flood 

Hudson  river,  off  30th  street  

3.0 
3.8 
3.0 
2.0 
2.9 
2.2 
2.0 
1.0 
1.9 
2.0 

2.0 
3.6 
2.9 
2.3 
2.6 
1.8 
1.8 
1.0 
1.8 
1.6 

1.86 
2.42 
2.00 
1.99 
1.90 
1.48 
1.17 
0.71 
1.30 
1.22 

1.27 
2.22 
1.98 
1.81 
1.73 
1.24 
1.04 
0.69 
1.22 
0.95 

East  river,  Brooklyn  Bridge  

East  river,  1  1th  street  

East  river,  19th  street  

East  river,  31st  street  

Kill  van  Hull,  Port  Richmond  

Kill  van  Hull,  Bergen  Point  

Harlem  river,  144th  street  

Harlem  river,  High  Bridge  

The  Narrows  

These  velocities  were  obtained  from  the  records  of  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 
and  from  the  float  observations  made  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission. 

Tidal  Prisms.  The  tidal  prism  of  a  body  of  water  is  that  part  which  lies  above  the 
level  of  mean  low  tide  at  the  time  of  high  tide.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  volume  of 
water  that  flows  in  from  below  between  low  tide  and  high  tide. 

The  ratio  of  the  tidal  prisms  to  the  water  lying  below  mean  water  level  is  given 
in  Table  V. 


156  DATA    COLLECTED 

TABLE  V 

RATIO  OF  TIDAL  PRISMS  TO  WATER  VOLUMES  ix  NEW  YORK  HARBOR 


Division  of  Harbor 

Area 
Square 
Miles 

Average 
Depth 
Feet 

Average 
Tide 
Range 
Feet 

Volume 
below 
M.  L.  W. 
Cubic  Feet* 

Tidal 
Prism 
Cubic  Feet* 

Percentage 

Upper  bay  

20.74 

22.4 

4  4 

12970 

2,541 

19  6 

Hudson  river,  Battery  to  Mt  St  Vincent  

14  49 

30  7 

4  2 

12330 

1  697 

13  7 

East  river  Battery  to  East  88th  street 

3  31 

29  2 

4  7 

2700 

434 

16  1 

East  river,  East  88th.  street  to  Old  Ferry  Point  .  .  . 
East  river  Old  Ferry  Point  to  Throgs  Neck  

8.98 
2  51 

22.3 
41  0 

6.2 
7  1 

5590. 
2870 

1,552. 
497 

27.8 
17  3 

Harlem  river  

0.49 

13.6 

5.3 

185  7 

72  5 

39  0 

Newark  bay  

8.35 

6.6 

4.6 

1542. 

1,071. 

69.6 

Kill  van  Kull  

1.12 

23.4 

4.8 

728. 

149  8 

20.6 

Arthur  Kill          

4.93 

12.6 

5  4 

1735. 

743 

42  8 

*  In  millions  of  cubic  feet. 

For  equal  ranges  of  tide  the  percentage  will  increase  inversely  as  the  average 
depth;  therefore,  the  shallower  the  water  the  greater  will  be  the  ratio  of  change  of 
volume  during  each  tide.  The  least  ratio  of  change  is  in  the  Hudson  river,  and  the 
greatest  in  NeAvark  bay. 

SECTION  II 

PRINCIPAL    CURRENT    PHENOMENA 
IN  THE  NARROWS  AND  AT  OTHER  POINTS  IN  THE  HARBOU 

Inertia  is  that  property  of  matter  Avhich  causes  a  body  to  remain  in  a  condition 
of  rest  or  motion.  When  the  tidal  currents  turn  from  flood  to  ebb  or  from  ebb  to 
flood,  the  inertia  of  the  moving  stream  plan's  a  very  important  part.  The  turn  of  the 
tide  takes  place  first  along  the  shore.  In  the  Narrows  the  first  change  of  current  ap- 
pears on  the  east  side  of  the  channel. 

As  the  specific  gravity  of  the  sea  outside  of  New  York  bar  is  about  1.024,  the  sea  water 
is  approximately  2y2  per  cent,  heavier  than  the  land  water  discharged  from  the  rivers. 
As  the  tide  turns  there  is  a  tendency  for  this  lighter  laud  water  to  flow  out  over  the 
top  of  the  incoming  heavier  salt  water. 

Underrun.  There  also  results  an  incoming  flow  of  sea  water  at  or  near  the  bot- 
tom, already  described  as  the  underrun.  The  reversal  in  direction  of  the  surface  cur- 
rent ordinarily  takes  place  in  the  shallower  waters  near  the  shore,  where  it  is  less 
influenced  by  the  inertia  of  the  greater  volume  flowing  in  the  channel. 


TIDAL   PHENOMENA   IN   THE    METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  157 

The  underruu  of  sea  water  up  the  Hudson  river  extends  at  times  as  far  as  Car- 
thage,* 64  miles  above  the  Battery,  brackish  water  having  been  observed  as  far  as 
Poughkeepsie,  75  miles  from  the  Battery.f 

Tidal  Velocities.  Pure  tidal  motion  is  harmonic  in  character,  i.  e.,  the  velocities 
caused  by  a  tidal  wave  are  rhythmic,  varying  in  degree  by  regular  periods.  The  veloc- 
ity at  any  part  of  the  tide  is  proportional  to  the  sine  of  an  arc  representing  the  time 
elapsed  since  slack  water,  in  which  the  entire  circle  represents  a  complete  cycle  of  the 
tide,  or  12  lunar  hours,  one  lunar  hour  being  represented,  therefore,  by  30  degrees  of 
arc.  Variations  from  this  law  occur,  however,  from  the  following  causes: 

1.  The  underrun  at  the  times  of  tidal  change. 

2.  The  currents  are  not  always  in  the  same  direction  as  the  channel  currents. 

3.  The  inertia  of  the  flowing  stream  at  the  time  when  it  would  otherwise  reverse 
its  direction  from  flood  to  ebb  or  vice  versa. 

4.  The  effect  of  wind. 

5.  Variation  in  the  volume  of  land  water  brought  down  the  rivers  from  drainage 
areas  above. 

Paths  of  Floating  Bodies.  In  consequence  of  these  causes,  it  is  not  possible  to 
predict  with  great  accuracy  the  path  which  will  be  followed  by  a  floating  particle.  It 
is  possible,  however,  to  predict  the  path  if  the  conditions  stay  approximately  normal, 
as  follows : 

Suppose  a  particle  to  be  set  adrift  at  a  point  where  the  maximum  velocity  or 
"  strength  "  of  the  tidal  current  is  known.  Then,  according  to  the  law  of  sines,  the 
velocity  of  the  current  at  any  time  would  be 

A.  cosine  30  t 

in  which  A  denotes  the  velocity  of  the  tidal  current  at  time  of  strength  and  t  the  num- 
ber of  lunar  hours  after  the  time  of  strength.  If  solar  hours  are  used,  then  the  veloc- 
ity at  any  time  would  be 

A.cosine  29.98  t 

By  computing  and  plotting  a  number  of  these  velocities  at  different  stations  in 
the  locality  it  is  possible  to  predict  the  motion  that  would  normally  be  taken  by  a 
floating  particle  carried  along  by  the  current. 

Owing  to  the  variation  in  channel  sections  and  directions  which  cause  side  cur- 
rents or  eddies,  it  is  not  safe  to  calculate  the  predicted  course  which  a  floating  par- 
ticle will  take.  It  is  safer  to  rely  upon  observations  made  with  floats,  many  of  which 
were  made  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission. 

*Rep.  U.  S.  C.  &  G.  S.  1887  App.  15  p.304. 
tRep.  Com.  on  Add.  Water  Sup.  N.  Y.  1903  p.  523. 


158  DATA    COLLECTED 

Iii  this  connection  it  must  be  remembered  that  surface  velocities  do  iiot  ordi- 
narily indicate  the  mean  velocities  of  tidal  streams.  While  the  surface  particles  may 
have  a  known  velocity  in  one  direction  the  velocity  of  the  particles  beneath  the  sur- 
face often  differ  materially. 

To  determine  accurately  the  mean  velocity  of  a  tidal  current,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  take  simultaneous  observations  at  many  points  across  a  stream  and  at  many 
points  in  depth  below  the  surface.  These  observations  should  cover  a  considerable 
period  of  time  in  order  to  obtain  fair  averages.  Owing  to  the  expense  involved,  which 
would  be  very  great,  and  to  the  obstruction  of  the  waterway  by  anchoring  observing 
boats  at  close  intervals  across  the  stream,  this  method  was  not  undertaken  by  the 
Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission. 

THE  CURRENTS  WHICH  EXIST  IN  THE  HARBOR  AT  EACH  LUNAR  HOUR  OF  A  TIDAL  CYCLE 

As  shown  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commissions'  float  experiments  and  by 
a  study  of  the  currents,  the  hourly  conditions  are  as  follows: 

I  Lunar  Hour.  The  water  is  flowing  out  of  the  Upper  bay  through  the  Nar- 
rows, toward  the  sea ;  into  the  Upper  bay  through  the  Kill  van  Kull,  the  East  river 
and  the  Hudson  river;  and  the  water  level  in  the  Upper  bay  is  falling. 

//  Lunar  Hour.  The  water  is  flowing  out  of  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows, toward  the  sea,  flowing  into  the  Upper  bay  through  the  Kill  van  Kull,  East 
river  and  Hudson  river;  and  the  water  in  the  Upper  bay  is  rising. 

///  Lunar  Hour.  The  water  is  flowing  out  of  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows, toward  the  sea;  flowing  into  the  Upper  bay  through  the  East  river  and  the 
Hudson  river;  the  Kill  van  Kull  is  nearly  slack;  and  the  water  in  the  Upper  bay  is 
rising. 

IV  Lunar  Hour.     The  water  is  flowing  into  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows,* from  the  sea;  into  the  Upper  bay  from  the  Hudson  river;  out  of  the  Upper  bay 
and  Hudson  river  into  the  East  river;  out  of  the  Upper  bay  into  the  Kill  van  Kull; 
and  the  water  in  the  bay  is  rising. 

V  Lunar  Hour.     The  water  is  flowing  into  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Narrows, 
from  the  sea;  the  Hudson  river  is  nearly  slack;  flowing  out  of  the  Upper  bay  through 
the  East  river  and  the  Kill  van  Kull;  and  the  water  in  the  bay  is  rising. 

VI  Lunar  Hour.     The  water  is  flowing  into  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows, from  the  sea;  out  of  the  Upper  bay  through  the  Hudson  river,  East  river  and 
Kill  van  Kull ;  and  the  water  in  the  bay  is  rising. 

*In  the  Narrows  the  surface  currents  are  nearly  slack. 


TIDAL    PHENOMENA    IN    THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT  159 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  Floats,  First  Lunar  Hour 


160 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Surface  Current*  at  Shown  by  Floats  Second  Lunar  Hour 


TIDAL    PHENOMENA    IN    THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT  161 


Surface  Currents  aa  Shown  by  Floats,  Third  Lunar  Hour 


102 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  Floats,  Fourth  Lunar  Hour 


TIDAL    PHENOMENA    IN    THE    METEOPOL1TAN    DISTRICT  163 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  Floats,  Fifth  Lunar  Hour 


164 


DATA   COLLECTED 


i'-O  ^   , 

£*fc  "<*.\  p 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  Floats,  Sixth  Lunar  Hour 


TIDAL   PHENOMENA   IN   THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT  165 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  Floats,  Seventh  Lunar  Hour 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  P'loats,  Eighth  Lunar  Hour 


TIDAL    PHENOMENA    IN    THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT  167 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  Floats,  Ninth  Lunar  Hour 


168 


DATA   COLLECTED 


?  /• 


yi&/> 

„    «j    v-ysvf 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  Floats,  Tenth  Lunar  Hour 


TIDAL   PHENOMENA   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT  1(59 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  Floats,  Eleventh  Lunar  Hour 


170 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Surface  Currents  as  Shown  by  Floats,  Twelfth  Lunar  Hour 


TIDAL  PHENOMENA   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT          171 

VII  Lunar  Hour.     The  water  is  flowing  into  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows from  the  sea;  flowing  out  of  the  Upper   bay   through  the  Hudson  river,  East 
river  and  Kill  van  Kull;  and  the  water  in  the  bay  is  rising. 

VIII  Lunar  Hour.     The  water  is  flowing  into  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows, from  the  sea;  flowing  out  of  the  Upper  bay   through   the  Hudson  river,   East 
river  and  Kill  van  Kull;  and  the  water  in  the  bay  is  falling. 

IX  Lunar  Hour.     The  water  is  flowing  into  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows, from  the  sea,  and  through  the  Kill  van   Kull;  flowing  out  of  the  Upper  bay 
through   the  Hudson   river  and   the   East  river;  and  the  water  in  the  bay  is  falling. 

X  Lunar  Hour.     The  water  is  flowing  out  of  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows, toward  the  sea;  out  of  the  Upper  bay  and  East  river  through  the  Hudson 
River;  into  the  Upper  bay  and  Hudson  river  through  the  East  river;  into  the  Upper 
bay  through  the  Kill  van  Kull ;  and  the  water  in  the  bay  is  falling. 

XI  Lunar  Hour.     The  water  is  flowing  out  of  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows, toward  the  sea;  into  the  Upper  bay  through  the  Hudson  river,  East  river  and 
Kill  van  Kull;  and  the  water  in  the  bay  is  falling. 

XII  Lunar  Hour.     The  water  is  flowing  out  of  the  Upper  bay,  through  the  Nar- 
rows, toward  the  sea;  into  the  Upper  bay  through  the  Hudson  river,  East  river  and 
Kill  van  Kull;  and  the  water  in  the  bay  is  falling. 

PRINCIPAL  TIDAL  PHENOMENA  IN  THE  ESTUARIES  OF  THE  HARBOR 
Tidal  Rivers.  The  Passaic  river,  Newtown  creek,  Bronx  river,  Rahway  river  and 
Raritan  river  are  imperfect  examples  of  tidal  rivers  with  estuaries.  In  such  rivers  there 
is  a  tendency  for  the  maximum  flood  velocity  to  occur  less  than  three  hours  before  the 
time  of  local  low  water.  In  such  streams  the  range  of  tide  may  increase  somewhat  in 
going  upstream,  provided  the  cross  section  diminishes  gradually,  but  if  piers  or  bridges 
interfere  seriously  with  the  flow  the  range  of  tide  above  such  obstructions  will  be  de- 
creased. 

Jamaica  Bay.  Jamaica  bay  is  a  tidal  basin  connected  with  the  ocean  through  Rock- 
away  inlet.  The  tidal  currents  through  this  inlet  are  hydraulic  and,  therefore,  their 
greatest  velocities  occur  when  the  bay  is  being  filled  or  emptied  most  rapidly,  or  about 
three  hours  before  high  or  low  water  in  the  bay.  As  the  area  of  Jamaica  bay  and  its 
tidal  tributaries  is  about  25.1/4*  square  statute  miles,  the  tidal  currents  through  the  inlet 
will  be  strong,  and  the  resulting  erosion  the  cause  of  the  great  depth  of  water  just  west 
of  Rockaway  Beach. 


"Hep.  Jamaica  Bay  Improvement  Com.,  1009,  p.  33 


172  DATA    COLLECTED 

Shrewsbury  River.  In  the  Shrewsbury  river  the  range  of  tide  in  the  broad  portion 
is  considerably  smaller  than  the  range  around  Sandy  Hook  on  account  of  the  narrow 
connecting  water-way.  If  this  water-way  were  made  deeper,  a  greater  rise  and  fall  of 
the  water  would  be  caused  in  the  broad  portion  of  the  river,  and  the  tidal  volume  enter- 
ing and  leaving  the  river  would  be  increased.  A  deepening  of  the  water-way  would  ac- 
celerate the  times  of  the  occurrences  of  the  tides. 

Gowanus  Canal.  Gowanus  canal  is  so  situated  that  the  tidal  flow  must  be  very 
small,  since  the  volume  of  water  which  enters  upon  a  flood  tide  or  leaves  upon  an  ebb 
tide  will  be  the  area  of  the  canal  multiplied  by  the  range  of  tide.  At  the  head  of  the 
canal,  or  at  the  head  of  any  of  its  branches,  the  velocity  from  the  tide  is  practically  zero. 

Newtown  Creek.  Newtown  creek  is  similar  to  Gowanus  canal,  and  the  same  phe- 
nomena exist  in  the  former  as  in  the  latter. 

SECTION  III 

PHENOMENA  OF  DISCHARGE 
VOLUMES  OF  DISCHARGE 

The  volume  of  water  discharged  on  each  tidal  current  can  be  estimated  in  accord- 
ance with  the  principles  deduced  for  calculating  the  flow  of  rivers.  The  estimates  will 
be  approximately  correct;  and,  considering  the  daily  variations,  will  be  sufficiently 
accurate  for  all  practical  purposes.  These  estimates  are  based  on  the  area  of  a  selected 
section  below  the  mean  level  of  the  water  surface,  the  mean  velocity  of  the  current  and 
the  time  during  which  the  current  flows. 

The  volume  of  water  discharged  on  the  ebb  currents  exceeds  that  on  the  flood  cur- 
rents, so  that  there  is  a  resultant  flow  during  each  tidal  period  through  the  harbor 
toward  the  sea.  Under  conditions  of  minimum  net  outflow  toward  the  sea  this  resultant 
is  about  one-half  of  that  under  normal  conditions. 

The  Narrows.  By  ebb  flow  is  meant  the  southerly  flow  toward  the  sea;  and  by  flood 
the  northerly  flow  into  the  Upper  bay. 

The  Commission  has  estimated  the  average  of  the  ebb  and  flood  flows  through  the 
Narrows,  and  obtained  11,665  million  cubic  feet  per  six  lunar  hours.  The  resultant  flow, 
or  the  excess  of  ebb  over  flood,  is  the  land-water  from  the  drainage  areas  above  the  Nar- 
rows and  the  excess  of  flow  through  the  East  river  from  the  Sound.  The  land  water  is 
1,182.3  million  cubic  feet  and  the  resultant  through  the  East  river  may  be  taken  as  100 
million  cubic  feet  per  tidal  cycle,  or  a  total  of  1282.3  million  cubic  feet. 


TIDAL   PHENOMENA   IN   THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT 


173 


THE  NARROWS 


HUDSON  RIVER 


EAST  RIVER 


KILL  VAN  KULL 


EBB    rim 

176        155* 

MILLION 
CD    CT. 


HARLEM  RIVER 


VOLUMES  OF  WATER   FLOWING  INTO  AND 
OUT  OF  NEW  YORK  HARBOR  EACH  TIDE 


213 


10.4 


9.6 


7.3 


6.2 


Liverpool        London          Antwerp          Dublin  Boston  Belfast         Hamburg       Philadelphia        NewYork 

RISE  AND  FALL  OF  TIDE  IN  VARIOUS  HARBORS 


Liverpool 

London  (London  Bridge) 

Antwerp 
Dublin 


21.3  feet/ 
17.6     - 
11.5     - 

10.4  - 
NewYork  4.4  feet. 


Boston 
Belfast 
Hamburg 
Philadelphia 


9.6  feet 

7.9      - 

6.2  - 

5.3  •• 


174  DATA    COLLECTED 

Therefore,  the  estimate  is : 

For  Ebb 12,306,150,000  cubic  feet 

For  Flood 11,023,850,000      "       " 

Excess  or  Eesultant 1,282,300,000      "       " 

The  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  estimated  the  average  of  ebb  and  flood  flows  at 
11,613  million  cubic  feet,  on  the  basis  of  a  maximum  surface  velocity  of  2  knots  per  hour. 
They  also  made  a  computation  on  the  basis  of  tidal  volumes  and  land  water  discharges, 
neglecting  the  resultant  flow  of  the  East  river  as  being  too  small  to  effect  a  material  dif- 
ference and  obtained  the  following: 

For  Ebb 12,213,029,000  cubic  feet 

For  Flood 11,030,695,000      "       " 

Excess  or  Eesultant 1,182,334,000      "       " 

Both  these  estimates  are  based  on  the  same  fundamental  data,  which  accounts  for 
the  closeness  of  the  results. 

Hudson  River.  By  ebb  flow  is  meant  the  southerly  flow  into  the  Upper  bay;  and 
by  flood  the  northerly  flow  from  the  Upper  bay. 

The  Commission  lias  estimated  the  volumes  discharged  per  tidal  cycle  past  a  section 
opposite  West  Thirty-ninth  street,  Manhattan,  and  obtained : 

For  Ebb 6,910,000,000  cubic  feet 

For  Flood 5,740,000,000      "       " 

Excess  or  Eesultant 1,170,000,000      "       " 

The  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  estimated  the  average  of  ebb  and  flood  flows  past  a 
section  between  Battery  place  and  Comrnunipaw  ferry  at  6,166  million  cubic  feet;  and 
computed  the  flows  on  the  basis  of  tidal  and  non-tidal  discharges,  with  the  following 
results : 

For  Ebb 6,722,246,000  cubic  feet 

For  Flood '. 5,635,070,000     " 

Excess  or  Eesultant 1,087,176,000      " 

East  River.  The  East  river,  so  called,  is  a  strait,  not  a  river,  connecting  Upper 
New  York  bay  and  Long  Island  Sound.  Tidal  waves  enter  at  both  ends,  the  Sound 
wave  being  approximately  twice  as  high  as  the  bay  wave.  There  is  a  decided  interfer- 
ence of  these  waves  traceable  to  the  southerly  end  of  Blackwells  Island. 

The  two  tides  ordinarily  meet  at  a  point  between  Throgs  Neck  and  Stepping  Stones 
Light,  so  that,  strictly  speaking,  the  flood  (or  ebb)  currents  on  each  side  of  this  meet- 
ing point  flow  in  opposite  directions.  The  ebb  current  may  therefore  be  considered  as 
flowing  the  entire  length  of  the  East  river  from  Throgs  Neck  to  the  Battery  and  a  flood 
current  as  flowing  from  the  Battery  to  Throgs  Neck. 

The  tidal  currents  in  the  river  are  peculiar.  During  flood  currents  there  is  a  ten- 
dency for  the  surface  water  to  flow  from  the  channel  towards  the  shores,  which  is  es- 


TIDAL   PHENOMENA   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT  175 

pecially  noticeable  along  the  lower  reaches  of  the  river.  The  opposite  tendency  is  noted 
during  ebb  currents.  This  tendency  appears-1  to  be  created  by  the  higher  velocity  in  the 
channel  over  that  along  the  bulkheads.  The  currents  along  the  bulkheads  are  restricted 
by  the  fractional  resistance  of  the  docks,  walls  and  irregularities  so  that  during  flood 
currents  the  water  surface  along  the  bulkheads  does  not  rise  as  rapidly  as  that  in  mid- 
stream. During  ebb  currents  there  is  a  tendency  to  produce  a  reversal  of  these  condi- 
tions. This  tendency  was  made  apparent  by  the  action  of  the  dyes*  which  were  put  into 
the  waters  and  by  the  floats*  working  their  way  into  the  slips  duriug  the  flood  and  out 
during  the  ebb. 

Floats  set  adrift  near  Throgs  Neck  had  a  tendency  to  work  their  way  into  the 
Sound,  while  from  Hell  Gate  the  general  tendency  of  the  drift  was  southerly,  passing 
into  the  Upper  bay  either  by  way  of  Buttermilk  channel  or,  in  some  cases,  to  the  west 
of  Governors  Island.  One  float  (No.  65)  set  adrift  off  College  Point  continued  for  over 
three  days  to  oscillate  between  Whites  tone  Point  and  Brooklyn  Bridge,  and  never  left 
the  limits  of  the  East  river.  It  was  finally  taken  out  near  North  Brother  Island. 

Although  the  ranges  of  the  tide  at  the  Battery  and  at  Throgs  Neck  are  different  and 
occur  at  different  times,  the  slopes  of  the  surface  in  both  directions  are  equal.  There 
is  not  a  great  difference  in  the  observed  velocities  between  the  flood  and  ebb  currents  but 
there  is  probably  a  greater  velocity  on  the  flood  current  east  of  Hell  Gate  and  a  greater 
velocity  on  the  ebb  current  south  of  Blackwells  Island  ;f  but  as  the  average  cross  sec- 
tional area  of  the  stream  is  greater  during  the  ebb  east  of  Hell  Gate  and  on  the  flood 
south  of  that  point,  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  that  the  net  or  re- 
sultant flow  from  the  Sound  into  the  Upper  bay  is  small,  and  that  under  normal  condi- 
tions the  volume  transmitted  during  the  ebb  current  could  not  be  more  than  one  or 
two  per  cent,  greater  than  the  volume  transmitted  during  the  flood  current.  The  Sur- 
vey estimates  that  the  average  of  the  ebb  and  flood  volumes  is  4,028  million  cubic  feet 
for  each  six  lunar  hours. 

The  Commission  lias  estimated  the  volumes  discharged  past  sections  between  Brook- 
lyn Bridge  and  East  Thirty-first  street,  Manhattan,  principally  using  the  float  observa- 
tions made  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission,  and  obtained  the  average  for  the 
ebb  and  flood  volumes  as  4,018  million  cubic  feet  for  each  six  lunar  hours.  These  calcu- 
lations showed  an  excess  of  ebb  over  flood  of  about  12  per  cent,  of  the  average  volume 
transmitted.  As  surface  velocities  were  considered,  and  as  there  are  not  sufficient  ob- 
servations of  velocities  below  the  surface  to  make  it  clear  what  the  mean  velocity  really 
is.  it  is  probable  that  this  average  resultant  flow  is  too  great, 

*Experiments  of  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission. 

t  Letter  of  O.  H.  TiUman,  Supt.  U.  S.  C.  &  G.  S.  Feb.  6,  1009. 


176  DATA    COLLECTED 

Taking  the  larger  of  the  Survey  estimates,  namely,  two  per  cent.,  the  resultant  flow 
would  be  80  million  cubic  feet.  In  order  to  be  conservative  for  the  purposes  of  this  in- 
vestigation, and  give  the  river  as  great  a  resultant  flow  as  is  consistent  with  the  evi- 
dence, a  net  or  resultant  flow  from  the  Sound  into  the  Upper  bay  of  100  million  cubic 
feet  for  each  tidal  cycle  of  12  lunar  hours  has  been  assumed.  The  results,  therefore, 
are: — 

For  Ebb 4,068,000,000  cubic  feet 

For  Flood 3,968,000,000      " 

Excess  or  Kesultaut 100,000,000     " 

Kill  van  Kull  and  Arthur  Kill.  The  Kill  van  Kull  is  a  strait  joining  the  Upper 
bay  with  Newark  bay,  and  the  Arthur  Kill  is  a  strait  joining  Raritau  bay  and  the 
Lower  bay  with  Newark  bay. 

As  the  water  falls  in  Newark  bay  the  ebb  current  flows  through  the  Kill  van  Kull 
into  the  Upper  bay  and  through  the  Arthur  Kill  into  the  Lower  bay.  As  the  water  rises 
in  Newark  bay  the  flood  current  flows  through  the  Kill  van  Kull  from  the  Upper  bay 
and  through  the  Arthur  Kill  from  the  Lower  bay. 

The  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  estimates  that  of  the  waters  entering  and  leaving 
Newark  bay  and  tributaries,  about  84  per  cent,  passes  through  the  Kill  van  Kull  and 
16  per  cent,  passes  through  the  Arthur  Kill. 

The  Survey  estimated  the  volumes  of  flow  through  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  Arthur 
Kill  by  computing  the  volume  of  the  tidal  prism  in  Newark  bay  and  its  tributaries, 
and  then  dividing  this  flow  in  the  ratio  of  the  percentages  just  given. 

The  results  thus  obtained  are  averages  of  ebb  and  flood  volumes  transmitted  dur- 
ing six  lunar  hours,  and  are : 

For  Kill  van  Kull 1,600,000,000  cubic  feet 

For  Arthur  Kill 319,000,000     " 

The  Survey  also  made  a  computation  on  the  basis  of  tidal  and  non-tidal  dis- 
charges, which,  for  the  Kill  van  Kull  gives  the  following  results : 

For  Ebb   1,639,934,000  cubic  feet 

For  Flood   1,551,658,000     "        " 

Excess  or  Resultant 88,276,000     " 

The  Commission  has  estimated  the  volumes  discharged  past  sections  off  Port  Rich- 
mond and  near  Bergen  Point,  using  current  velocities  as  given  in  Tide  Tables,  and  ob- 
tained : 

For  Ebb  1,479,000,000  cubic  feet 

For  Flood    1,391,000,000      " 

Excess  or  Resultant 88,000,000     « 


TIDAL   1'llENOMENA   IN   THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT  177 


DISCHARGE:  <  N  MILLIONS  or,  CUBIC  FCE;T 

L_!  i  s  i  1*  1  :  i  1  I  1  i  E  i  !  f 



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LUNAR                                             HOURS 

VOLUMES  OF  WATER  FLOWING  IN  DIFFERENT  CHANNELS 
DURING    EACH    LUNAR    HOUR 


THE  NARROWS 


HUDSON  RIVER 
»T  THE  BATTERY 


RARITAN  RIVER 

AND 
ARTHUR     KILL 


AVERAGE  DISCHARGE  OF  LAND  WATER    IN 
CUBIC   FEET    PER    SECOND 


178 


DATA    COLLECTED 


llurlvm  h'iicr.  The  Harlem  river  is  a  .strait  joining  the  so-called  East  river  and 
the  Hudson  river. 

By  ebb  current  is  meant  the  northerly  How  of  the  river  or  the  volume  of  water 
discharged  into  the  Hudson  river. 

By  flood  current  is  meant  the  southerly  flow  of  the  river  or  the  volume  of  water 
discharged  into  the  East  river. 

The  Commission  has  estimated  the  quantity  of  water  transmitted  on  bolh  ebb 
and  flood  currents,  using  the  current  velocities  from  the  float  observations  made  by 
the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission.  Two  sections  were  taken — one  opposite 
144th  street,  Manhattan,  and  one  600  feet  north  of  High  Bridge. 

The  results  as  computed  for  these  two  sections  were  averaged  with  the  following 
results : 

For  Ebb   176,100,000  cubic  feet 

For  Flood 153,500,000      " 

Excess  or  Resultant 22,600,000      " 

TABLE  VI 

VOLUMES  OF  FLOW  IN  MILLIONS  OF  CUBIC  FKKT  I-KK  LUNAK  HOUR  IN  Nio\v  VOKK  UAIHSOU 


Lunar  Hour 

Hudson  River 

East  River 

Kill  van  Hull 

The  Narrows 

Water  in  Upper  Bay 

Into 
Upper 
Bay 

Out  of 
Upper 
Bay 

Into 
Upper 
Bay 

Out  of 
Upper 
Bay 

Into 
Upper 
Bay 

Out  of 
Upper 
Bay 

Into 
Upper 
Bay 

Out  of 
Upper 
Bay 

Decreasing 

Increasing 

I              

1,600 
1,730 
1,430 

710 

155 
860 
1,360 
1,460 
1,200 
600 

1,010 
730 
260 

290 
750 
1,030 

270 
730 
1,010 
990 
710 
260 

340 
160 

70 
260 
390 
420 

55 
250 
380 
400 
320 
150 

.... 

430 
1,820 
2,690 
2,840 
2,230 
1,020 

.... 

3,160 
2,490 
1,120 

480 
2,060 
3,000 

290 

70 
400 
600 
650 
540 

70 
400 
600 
650 
540 
290 

II  

Ill       

IV  

v 

VI            

VII                   

VIII       

IX            

x             

XI     

200 
1,050 

XII  

Ebb  flow  

6,720 

5,635 

4,070 

3,970 

1,640 

1,555 

11,030 

12,310 

2,550 

2,550 

Flood  flow  

TIDAL   PHENOMENA   IN   THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT  17!) 

VOLUMES  OF  TIDAL  FLOW  INTO  AND  OUT  OF  THE  UPPER  BAY 

General  Conditions.  Taking  the  Upper  bay  as  a  central  basin,  the  entrances  and 
exits  are  the  East  river,  Hudson  river,  Kill  van  Kull,  and  the  Narrows. 

Into  the  Upper  bay  there  is  a  discharge  of  water  from  the  Hudson  river  and  a 
proportion  of  the  discharge  of  the  Hackeusack  and  Passaic  rivers  as  well  as  the  re- 
sultant How  from  the  Sound  through  the  East  river.  This  resultant  flow  through  the 
East  river  toward  the  Upper  bay  may  or  may  not  be  great,  but  under  normal  condi- 
tions there  is  a  small  resultant  discharge  into  the  bay.  In  consequence,  there  is  a 
net  How  of  water  seaward  through  the  Narrows  and  the  effect  of  this  seaward  flow  is 
felt  possibly  some  sixty  miles  off  Sandy  Hook.* 

While  the  water  is  flowing  into  and  out  of  the  Upper  bay  during  a  full  tidal  cycle 
the  volume  of  water  in  the  Upper  bay  is  changing,  as  is  shown  by  the  rise  and  fall 
of  its  water  surface.  In  order  to  create  this  rise  more  water  must  flow  into  the  Upper 
bay  during  approximately  six  lunar  hours  than  runs  out  during  the  same  hours.  The 
converse  is  also  true.  As  the  water  surface  of  the  Upper  bay  is  nearly  twenty-one 
square  miles,  and  the  mean  range  of  tide  is  4.4  feet,  the  tidal  prism  and  also  the  vol- 
ume of  tidal  change  between  any  two  periods  of  time  can  be  estimated. 

Method  of  Estimating.  The  rates  or  volumes  of  flow,  in  millions  of  cubic  feet  per 
lunar  hour,  are  shown  graphically  on  page  177.  To  determine  the  volumes  of  flow 
through  any  one  of  the  entrances  to  the  Upper  bay  at  any  given  lunar  hour,  measure 
the  ordinate,  or  vertical  distance  from  the  horizontal  base  line  to  the  proper  curve  in 
accordance  with  the  scale  marked  on  the  diagram. 

These  rates  of  flow  are  those  under  mean  conditions  and  are  sufficiently  accu- 
rate for  all  practical  purposes. 

Fig.  3  was  constructed  by  assuming  that  the  rates  of  flow  vary  as  the  ordi- 
nates  of  a  curve  of  sines.  Therefore,  for  each  tidal  flow  a  sine  curve  was  drawn  to 
scale,  so  that  its  horizontal  length  would  represent  the  number  of  lunar  hours  that 
the  current  would  flow  on  either  ebb  or  flood  and  its  area  between  the  curve  and  the 
base  line  would  represent  the  volumes  of  flow  transmitted,  as  estimated  above. 
Dividing  any  volume  of  tidal  discharge,  as  given,  by  six  will  give  the  average 
flow  for  one  lunar  hour.  Multiplying  this  result  by  it  -f-2,  which  is  the  ratio 
that  the  maximum  ordinate  of  a  sine  curve  bears  to  its  average  ordinate,  will  give  the 
maximum  flow  for  the  current  selected.  This  point  was  plotted  to  scale  and  a  sine 
curve  drawn  through  it.  This  work  was  repeated  for  each  division  of  the  harbor. 

By  scaling  the  curves  given  in  Fig.  3  at  each  lunar  hour,  the  volumes  of  flow 
for  each  lunar  hour  were  obtained  and  tabulated  in  Table  VI. 


*U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  Vol.  Ill,   1859-60,  Appendix  20. 


180  DATA    COLLECTED 

In  drawing  the  curves  on  Fig.  3,  the  lunar  times  were  advanced  by  the  num- 
ber of  minutes  that  the  tidal  waves  required  to  progress  from  the  Upper  bay  to 
the  sections  selected  for  estimating  the  volumes  of  flow. 

DISCHARGE  OF  WATER  THROUGH  NEW  YORK  HARBOR  TO  THE  SEA 

There  is  a  resultant  flow  or  discharge  of  water  through  the  East  river  and  New 
York  bay  from  Long  Island  Sound  to  the  ocean.  The  net  discharge  through  the  East 
river  is,  however,  according  to  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  small  and  not  in  excess 
of  one  or  two  per  cent,  of  the  flood  flow. 

Xct  Flow  into  Bay  from  Sound.  According  to  an  estimate  made  by  the  Commis- 
sion, the  volume  transmitted  on  the  ebb  is  about  12  per  cent,  greater  than  the  volume 
transmitted  on  the  flood,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  are  not  sufficient  data, 
properly  taken  over  a  sufficiently  long  period  of  time,  to  warrant  a  positive  statement 
as  'to  what  is  the  net  resultant  flow  under  normal  conditions. 

Based  on  the  behavior  of  the  floats  set  adrift  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Com- 
mission, and  on  the  figures  given  above,  the  resultant  flow  from  the  Sound  into 
the  Upper  bay  does  not  play  as  important  a  part  in  flushing  out  New  York  harbor  as  the 
high  currents  would  indicate.  In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  this  resultant  flow 
can  be  conservatively  taken  at  100,000,000  cubic  feet  per  tidal  cycle  of  12  lunar  hours. 

Net  Flow  Seaward  through  Narrows.  The  net  or  resultant  flow  through  the  Nar- 
rows to  the  sea,  is  the  sum  of  the  resultant  flow  through  the  East  river  and  the  dis- 
charge of  land  waters  from  the  watersheds  draining  into  the  Upper  bay. 

This  land-water,  it  is  estimated,  amounts  to  2G,442  cubic  feet  per  second.  As  there 
are  44,714  seconds  in  12  lunar  hours,  the  discharge  of  land-water  is  1,182.3  million 
cubic  feet.  To  this  should  be  added  the  resultant  flow  from  Long  Island  Sound  through 
the  East  river,  or  100  million  cubic  feet. 

The  mean  resultant  flow  through  the  Narrows  is,  therefore,  1,282.3  million  cubic 
feet  per  tidal  cycle  of  12  lunar  hours. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  favorable  to  a  large  flow  through  the  Narrows,  the  re- 
sultant flow  may  be  41  per  cent,  greater  than  the  mean;  and  under  conditions  unfavor- 
able to  a  large  flow,  the  resultant  may  be  46  per  cent,  less  than  the  mean. 


TIDAL   PHENOMENA   IN   THE    METROPOLITAN    DISTRICT  181 

CONTROLLING  FACTORS  WHICH  AFFECT  THE  FLOW  OF  WATER  INTO  AND  OUT  OF  NEW 

YORK  HARBOR  AND  EFFECT  PRODUCED  BY  WIND 

The  controlling  factors  which  affect  the  flow  of  the  water  into  and  out  of  the  har- 
bor are: 

1.  Land  Water  Discharge.    The  variability  of  the  drainage  discharge  from  month 
to  month  from  the  watersheds  drained  by  the  various  rivers  and  creeks  entering  the 
harbor,  as  has  been  mentioned  above. 

2.  Variation  in  Heights  of  Tides.    The  variability  of  the  quantity  of  water  enter- 
ing or  leaving  the  harbor,  depending  upon  the  irregular  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide,  which 
is  due  to  the  perigean  and  the  apogean  ranges,  or  those  in  which  the  influences  of  the 
moon  and  sun  act  in  the  same  or  opposite  directions. 

3.  Effects  of  Winds.    The  variability  of  the  quantity  of  water  entering  or  leaving 
the  harbor,  due  to  the  effect  of  the  wind,  which  is  very  irregular.     The  ordinary  ex- 
treme value  of  the  annual  fluctuation  of  the  surface  of  the  Upper  bay,  due  to  the 
wind,  is  about  four  feet;  and  on  two  or  three  days  of  each  year  it  is  usual  for  the 
winds  to  produce  an  extreme  variation  in  the  water  surface  of  about  two  feet  below  or 
of  about  two  feet  above  the  regular  tidal  height. 

EFFECT  OF  CHANGES  IN  DEPTH,  WIDTH  AND  LOCATION  OF  CHANNELS  AND  OF  CONSTRUCTION 
OF  ISLANDS  AND  BULKHEADS  ON  THE  DISCHARGE  OF  WATER  THROUGH 

THE  HARBOR 

Reclamation.  The  area  of  the  Upper  bay  is  about  20.7  square  miles;  of  Newark 
bay  about  8.3  square  miles;  of  the  Hudson  river  to  Mt.  St.  Vincent  14.5  square  miles, 
and  of  the  East  river  14.8  square  miles.  The  total  area  is,  therefore,  58.3  square 
miles,  and  is  so  large  in  comparison  with  any  of  the  reclaimed  areas  that  the  flow  into 
and  out  of  the  harbor  can  scarcely  be  sensibly  affected  because  of  the  tidal  areas  lost 
through  the  construction  of  islands  and  bulkheads. 

Pier  Extensions.  The  extension  of  piers  into  the  rivers,  especially  the  Hudson  river, 
would  reduce  the  amount  of  tide  water  passing  up  and  down.  However,  neither  the 
reclamation  of  shore  areas  nor  the  extension  of  piers  into  the  Hudson  seem,  up  to  the 
present  time,  to  have  sensibly  interfered  with  the  tide.  For  instance,  the  mean  range  of 
tide  at  Dobbs  Ferry,  determined  from  observations  made  in  the  years  1856,  1858,  1885, 
1886  and  1900,  has  the  values  of  3.71,  3.69,  3.58,  3.60  and  3.66  feet  respectively,  and 
these  figures  are  apparently  sufficiently  close  to  cover  the  yearly  variations. 

Dredged  Channels.  The  flow  out  of  and  into  the  harbor  is  controlled  by  the  Nar- 
rows; and  the  dredging  of  the  channels  in  the  Lower  bay  will  probably  produce  no  sens- 
ible alteration  in  the  general  circulation  of  the  water  in  the  harbor. 


182 


DATA    COLLECTED 


AVERAGE,,  MAXIMUM  AND  MINIMUM  VELOCITY,  IN  EACH  DIRECTION.  OF  CURRENTS  AT  THE 
PRINCIPAL  POINTS  IN  NEW  YORK  HARBOR,  AT  THE  TIME  WHEN 
EACH  CURRENT  is  STRONGEST 

The  velocity  of  the  strongest  surface  currents  for  various  points  in  the  harbor  is 
given  iu  Table  VII.  These  velocities  are  surface  velocities  or  the  velocity  of  the  water 
just  below  the  surface. 

TABLE  VII 
VELOCITIES  OF  CURRENTS  IN  THE  CHANNELS  OF  NEW  YORK  HARBOR 


When  conditions  are 

Mean 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Ebb 

Flood 

Ebb 

Flood 

Ebb 

Flood 

The  Narrows  

2.0 
3.0 
3.8 
3.0 
2.6 
2.9 
2.2 
2.0 
1.0 
1.9 

1.6 
2.0 
3.6 
2.9 
2.3 
2.0 
1.8 
1.8 
1.0 
1.8 

2.8 
4.7 
4.6 
3.7 
3.2 
3.5 
2.7 
2.4 
1.2 
2.3 

2.3 
3.0 
4.4 
3.5 
2.8 
3.2 
2.2 
2.2 
1.2 
2.2 

1.1 

1.4 
2.6 
2.1 
1.8 
2.0 
1.5 
1.4 
0.7 
1.3 

0.9 
1.2 
2.5 
2.0 
1.0 
1.8 
1.2 
1.2 
07 
1.2 

Hudson  river,  39th  street   

East  river  Brooklyn  Bridge                        

East  river,  1  1th  street  

East  river.  19th  street         -  

Kill  van  Kull  Port  Richmond                                                    .  .  .  . 

Kill  van  Kull,  Bergen  Point  

The  velocities  vary  even  more  widely  than  is  shown  in  the  table,  and  the  variations 
are  caused  by  the  variability  of  the  flow  from  the  drainage  areas,  by  the  perigean  and 
the  apogean  range  of  the  tide,  by  the  winds,  and  by  the  obstruction  of  the  flow  caused  by 
ice. 


CHAPTER  IV 
HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS  SHOWN  BY  FLOATS 

SECTION  I 
FLOAT  EXPERIMENTS 

Float  experiments  were  first  undertaken  in  1907  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
Commission  to  show  the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  tidal  currents  in  New  York 
harbor.  A  second  series  of  experiments  was  made  in  1908  and  a  third  in  1909. 

The  immediate  object  of  these  experiments  was  to  gain  information  as  to  the 
probable  drift  of  sewnge  and  other  wastes  discharged  at  different  points  in  the  harbor 
at  different  stages  of  tide.  It  was  particularly  desired  to  learn  how  long  it  would 
fake  such  material  to  pass  out  to  sea. 

Some  information  on  this  subject  was  available  in  publications  of  the  United 
States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  but  most  of  it  related  to  movements  in  the  main 
channel  of  the  Upper  bay  and  Hudson  and  East  rivers.  There  is  little  definite  knowl- 
edge regal-ding  the  currents  in  the  ITarlem  river,  Kill  van  Kull  and  other  small 
bodies  of  water  or  of  currents  near  shore.  The  information  which  was  lacking  was 
particularly  needed  in  connection  with  the  questions  of  sewage  disposal  which  the 
commission  had  to  study.  The  conditions  at  the  proposed  outlet  of  the  Passaic  valley 
sower  near  Bobbins  Reef  were  of  special  interest. 

METHODS  OF  WOKK  EMPLOYED 

From  the  well-known  fact  that  sewage  discharged  into  salt  or  brackish  water 
tends  to  rise  and  flow  off  at  the  surface  it  was  believed  that  floats  of  moderate  depth 
would  indicate  the  path  likely  to  be  taken  by  sewage  if  discharged  either  at  or  below 
the  surface.  It  was  evident  that  floats,  however  designed,  would  be  affected  to  some 
extent  by  wind.  The  effect  of  wind  is  twofold:  First,  it  acts  on  the  area  of  the  float 
exposed  above  the  water  surface,  and,  second,  it  produces  a  general  movement  of  the 
water  near  the  surface  to  leeward.  This  movement  of  the  surface  water  is  a  conspic- 
uous phenomenon.  By  reducing  the  size  of  that  part  of  the  float  which  projected 
above  the  surface  of  the  water  and  making  the  flags  which  it  was  necessary  for  the 
floats  to  carry  as  small  as  practicable  the  direct  effect  of  the  wind  was  reduced  to  a 
point  which  was  considered  negligible.  As  for  the  drift  of  the  water  itself,  it  was  con- 


184  DATA    COLLECTED 

sidered  that  this  movement  would  convey  sewage  or  other  floating  material  quite  as 
readily  as  a  float,  so  that  the  value  of  the  record  in  indicating  what  would  become  ,if 
sewage  would  not  be  impaired  by  this  effect  of  the  wind. 

Points  which  were  considered  desirable  in  selecting  the  type  of  float,  to  be  used 
included  the  following:  (a)  minimum  area  of  float  exposed  to  the  wind;  (b)  maxi- 
mum area  of  the  submerged  portion  exposed  to  the  currents;  (<•)  ability  of  the  float 
to  resist  destruction  from  passing  vessels ;(d)  ease  with  which  the  float  could  be 
handled  from  the  attending  boats,  especially  in  stormy  weather. 

Three  types  of  floats  were  used  at  different  times  in  the  course  of  the  different 
series  of  experiments. 

Can  Floats.  The  first  consisted  of  two  tin  cylinders,  an  upper  and  a  lower  one 
connected  by  a  wire.  The  upper  cylinder  was  5%  inches  in  diameter  by  5  inches  in 
length;  it  was  empty  and  sealed  and  carried  a  small  red  flag  on  a  staff  set  in  a  socket 
on  the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder.  From  this  upper  can,  which  in  action  was  partly 
submerged,  a  larger  can  G1^  inches  in  diameter  by  14  inches  in  length  was  suspended 
by  a  copper  wire  of  such  length  as  to  permit  the  larger  can  to  float  in  the  current 
whose  velocity  was  to  be  determined.  This  larger  can  was  weighted  with  sand  until 
the  top  of  the  upper  can  was  nearly  level  with  the  surface  of  the  water.  This  type  of 
float  had  the  advantages  of  ease  of  handling,  ease  of  preparation  for  use,  a  small  area 
exposed  to  wind  and  small  cost.  On  the  other  hand,  where  traffic  was  congested — as 
in  the  East  river — they  were  destroyed  by  the  paddles  and  propellers  of  steamers. 
When  required  for  night  work  they  were  unable  to  carry  a  lantern. 

Spar  Floats.  A  second  type  consisted  in  a  stick  of  timber  2  inches  by  2  inches 
by  5  feet  buoyed  by  a  cork  float  at  the  top  and  carrying  four  vanes  of  sheet  iron,  12 
inches  by  24  inches  in  size.  The  vanes  were  nailed  to  the  stick  and  stayed  by  a  wire 
which  connected  their  outer  edges.  This  float  was  readily  made  and  proved  to  be 
effective  in  use.  Its  chief  defect  was  that  the  plates  were  too  easily  bent  when  the  float 
was  out  of  water. 

A  third  type  was  like  the  second  except  that  it  was  more  substantial.  Tt  was 
made  of  a  3-inch  by  3-inch  by  6-foot  stick  buoyed  at  one  end  by  being  built  up  to  12 
inches  by  12  inches  for  24  inches  from  the  top  and  weighted  at  the  other  by  four  vanes 
of  No.  14  gauge  iron  18  inches  by  21  inches  in  size,  secured  by  bolts.  A  %-inch  rod 
projected  about  four  feet  above  the  top  and  was  provided  with  two  arms  from  which 
were  suspended  red  and  white  lanterns  at  night.  As  this  float  was  heavy  and  difficult 
to  handle  and  as  the  rod  was  easily  bent,  a  light  stiffening  frame  of  %-inch  by  2-inch 
iron  was  attached  to  the  head  of  the  float  and  supported  the  rod  just  below  the  lan- 
tern. To  this  frame  was  welded  a  hook  to  be  grappled  in  removing  the  float  from  the 


Small  Can  Floats  Used  in  Studying  Tidal  Currents.     These  floats  could  easily  he  followed 
by  observers  on  a  boat  in  the  daytime 


Small  Can  Float  in  Use.     The  larger  can  was  filled  with  water  and  sand,  so  that  the  smaller  can  was  nearly 

submerged  when  put  in  use 


HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS   SHOWN  BY  FLOATS  185 

water.    This  design  proved  satisfactory  for  the  rough  seas  experienced  in  December, 
1909,  in  the  Lower  bay  and  among  the  tugs,  car  floats  and  ferries  of  the  East  river. 

Method  ft  of  Observing  Floats.  In  studying  the  currents  a  float  was  cast  overboard 
and  followed  by  an  observer  in  a  boat.  The  observer  determined  the  float's  position  at 
frequent  intervals,  generally  by  means  of  a  sextant,  but  often,  when  near  shore,  by 
cslimating  the  bearing  and  distance  of  the  float  from  a  known  point,  such  as  a  pier  or 
bridge.  In  some  cases,  where  the  distances  were  not  too  great,  an  azimuth  compass 
was  used  in  fixing  the  bearing. 

The  positions  of  the  floats  were  plotted  on  tracings  of  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  charts  on  a  scale  of  -  --,  -  -  or  -  '—.  depending  on  the  total 

-Ll/.t/Uw       "ii/jvwi/  oUjl/Ul/ 

distance  covered.     The  velocities  of  the  currents   were   calculated   from   the   times   of 
observation  and  the  distances  scaled  from  the  charts. 

E.rpcrlmcnts  of  1907.  Twenty-seven  experiments  were  made  in  1907.  Of  these  six 
were  mainly  in  the  Hudson  river,  two  in  the  lower  East  river,  ten  in  the  Upper  bay, 
two  in  Kill  van  Kull  and  seven  in  the  Lower  bay  or  both  Upper  and  Lower  bays. 
Seven  floats  were  set  adrift  in  the  vicinity  of  Robbing  Reef. 

The  floats  were  followed  with  a  gasolene  boat  in  the  months  of  February,  March, 
April,  June  and  July.  The  floats  used  were  of  the  second  type  described,  i.  e./a  2-mch 
by  2-inch  by  5-foot  stick  with  sheet-iron  vanes.  The  floats  were  usually  followed  dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  a  single  ebb  or  flood  current. 

K-rperimcnts  of  1908.  Thirty-nine  experiments  were  made  in  1908.  Of  these  13 
were  mainly  in  the  Harlem  river,  one  in  the  Hudson  river,  seven  in  the  East  river  east 
of  Hell  Gate,  six  in  the  East  river  south  of  Hell  Gate,  one  in  New  town  creek,  ten  in 
the  Upper  bay  and  one  in  the  Lower  bay.  Nine  floats  were  set  adrift  from  the  pro- 
posed location  of  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  outlet  near  Robbins  Reef. 

These  experiments  were  made  in  August,  September  and  October  from  gasolene 
launches  of  30  and  4G  feet  in  length.  Double  can  floats  were  used  throughout.  The 
path  taken  by  a  float  during  the  continuance  of  a  single  tide  was  usually  studied. 

Experiments  of  1909.  In  1909,  25  experiments  were  made;  they  were  in  two 
series. 

The  first  series  comprised  six  experiments  made  in  the  Arthur  Kill  and  Newark 
bay  in  September,  October  and  November.  A  gasolene  launch  and  double  can  floats 
were  used  as  in  1908. 

The  second  series  consisted  of  19  experiments,  carried  on  night  and  day  between 
November  8  and  December  30.  Of  these,  two  were  mainly  in  the  Hudson  river,  ten  in 


186  DATA    COLLECTED 

the  East  river  and  Long  Island  Sound,  five  in  the  Upper  and  Lower  bays,  one  in 
the  Kill  van  Kull  and  one  in  the  Arthur  Kill. 

The  type  of  float  used  was  generally  a  modification  of  that  employed  in  1907,  the 
design  finally  adopted  being  that  described  as  the  third  type. 

In  following  the  floats  a  62-foot  steamboat  and  a  54-foot  gasolene  oyster  boat  were 
first  used,  with  double  crews  in  12-hour  shifts.  Owing  to  the  long  distances  travelled, 
the  hard  service,  amounting  to  14  or  15  hours  per  day,  was  found  too  arduous.  A 
small  launch  was  then  engaged  for  day  use  and  the  men  were  worked  in  throe  shifts 
per  day. 

A  term  of  bad  weather  with  high  winds  and  fog  then  set  in,  making  it  difficult 
for  the  boats  to  relieve  each  other.  At  times  the  work  was  so  dangerous  that  it  could 
not  be  continued  successfully  by  this  plan. 

It  was  finally  decided  to  carry  on  the  work  from  one  properly  equipped  boat.  The 
80-foot  tugboat  Joseph  H.  Moran  was  secured  with  a  double  crew  and  provisioned 
for  a  week.  This  boat  was  put  into  commission  November  29  and  was  used  through- 
out the  rest  of  the  work  with  satisfactory  results. 

RESULTS  OF  FLOAT  EXPERIMENTS 

Hudson  River.  The  records  of  six  floats  set  out  in  1907,  five  set  out  in  1908  and 
three  set  out  in  1909,  were  wholly  or  in  part  in  the  Hudson  river. 

Those  covering  an  entire  run  of  tide  were  the  following: 

A  float  set  adrift  July  19,  1907,  opposite  Fernbrook  street,  Yonkers,  traveled  to 
Thirty-fifth  street,  Manhattan — a  distance  of  12%  miles — in  6  hours  28  minutes.  The 
float  followed  the  middle  of  the  river  to  Spuyten  Dnyvil  and  then  varied  from  near 
the  middle,  opposite  One  Hundred  and  Fifty-fifth  street,  to  one-sixth  the  distance 
across  opposite  Grant's  Tomb.  There  was  a  light  north  wind.  The  average  velocity 
was  about  two  statute  miles  per  hour  and  the  maximum  velocity  about  three  miles 
per  hour  opposite  Fort  Washington  Point. 

Float  No.  34  was  set  adrift  September  9,  1908,  in  the  Harlem  river  ship  canal  at 
Spuyten  Duyvil  at  the  end  of  the  flood  current.  It  then  went  0.4  mile  eastward. 
At  8.30  A.  M.  it  reversed  its  direction  with  the  tide.  Passing  out  to  the  Hudson  at 
8.46  A.  M.  it  encountered  the  flood  current  still  running  in  that  stream.  This  car- 
ried it  northerly  about  one  and  two-third  miles  and  to  about  one-fourth  the  widtli 
of  the  stream  from  the  western  shore.  Here  the  current  remained  slack  52  minutes 
and  then  turned  to  ebb  at  10.19  A.  M.  carrying  the  float  down  stream.  It  was  ap- 
]H)site  West  Forty-fifth  street,  11  miles,  in  5  hours  44  minutes.  The  mean  velocity 


I>arge  Float  Used  in  Day  and  Night  Studies  of  Tidal  Currents.     This  large,  strongly  con- 
structed float  was  followed  continuously,  lighted  lanterns  showing  its  location  at  night 


Large  Float  Used  in  Current  Studies  Showing  Appearance  when  Submerged.     The  lights  could  lie  followed 

without  difficulty  at  night 


1-IAUJJOK   (MUUiENTS  AS   SHOWN    UV    FLOATS 


Path  of  a  Float  in  the  Lower  bay  and  the  Upper  bay  and  the  Hudson  river 


188  DATA    COLLECTED 

was  1.92  miles  per  hour  and  the  maximum  velocity  2.97  miles  per  hour.  The  course 
followed  was  generally  near  the  middle  of  the  river  but  it  approached  to  0.1  mile  of 
the  east  side  at  the  mouth  of  the  Harlem  river  and  within  0.2  mile  of  the  west  side 
opposite  Inwood.  The  wind  was  southerly,  increasing  from  light  to  strong. 

Float  46  was  set  adrift  at  the  proposed  outlet  of  the  Bronx  valley  sewer  off  Mt. 
St.  Vincent  November  8,  1909,  at  11.03  P.  M.  soon  after  slack  water.  It  passed  down 
stream  10.81  miles  to  a  point  opposite  West  Sixty-seventh  street.  It  reached  there 
at  3.45  A.  M.  and  remained  stationary  25  minutes  during  slack  water.  The  flood 
current  carried  the  float  to  One  Hundred  and  Tenth  street  and  the  next  ebb  took  it 
to  Communipaw,  where  it  arrived  at  1.40  P.  M. 

Float  47  was  set  adrift  off  Mt.  St.  Vincent  November  9,  1909,  at  9.52  P.  M.  at  the 
turn  of  the  tide.  It  was  taken  out  November  12,  at  2.20  A.  M.,  2],{.  miles  south-south- 
west of  Norton  Point  near  the  end  of  the  ebb  current.  The  float  had  been  in  the 
water  five  ebb  tides  and  four  flood  tides  and  the  net  progression  had  been  28^  miles. 
The  average  progression  toward  the  sea  per  tidal  cycle  of  12  lunar  hours  was  five 
miles.  The  average  progression  per  tide  while  in  the  Harlem  river  was  about  five 
and  one-half  miles. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  floats  which  entered  the  Hudson  from  the  Harlem  river 
generally  hugged  the  easterly  shore  in  passing  down  stream. 

From  the  work  done  in  the  Hudson  river  the  mean  and  maximum  velocities  on  ebb 
currents  were  found  to  be  about  two  and  three  miles  per  hour  respectively  and  those 
on  the  flood  current  one  mile  and  two  miles  per  hour  respectively.  These  figures  vary 
to  a  considerable  degree  depending  on  the  amount  of  land  water  flowing  down  the 
river. 

Harlem  River.  The  Harlem  river  extends  from  Hell  Gate  to  Spuyten  Duyvil,  a 
distance  of  seven  and  five-eighth  miles.  Thirteen  float  records  were  obtained  in  this 
stream,  all  in  the  series  of  1908. 

Float  No.  5,  set  out  August  7,  traversed  G.05  miles  in  I  hours  r>2  minutes.  The 
mean  velocity  was  1.24  and  the  maximum  2.35  miles  per  hour. 

Float  No.  7,*  set  out  August  19,  made  4.70  miles  in  6  hours  2  minutes.  The  mean 
velocity  was  0.78  mile  per  hour.  The  maximum  velocity  was  1.93  miles  per  hour. 

Float  No.  8,  set  out  August  20,  covered  4.05  miles  in  4  hours  51  minutes.  The  mean 
velocity  was  0.89  mile  per  hour  and  the  maximum  velocity  1.31  miles  per  hour. 

Of  the  foregoing  the  paths  of  floats  Nos.  5,  7  and  8  represented  entire  flood  cur- 
rents. 


•This  record  was  interrupted  for  20  minutes,  during  which  time  the  boat  drifted  with  the  current. 


UAKBOll  CUKItENTS  AH   SHOWN   BY   FLOATS 


189 


START  OF  FLOAT 
8--23  A.M.  AUG. 20-1908 


FLOAT  TAKEN  UP  4:4Z  P.M 


Path  of  a  Kloat  in  the  Harlem  River 


190  DATA    COLLECTED 

Of  the  other  experiments  float  No.  6,  August  18,  showed  the  existence  of  a  strong 
current  toward  the  Sound  through  Bronx  Kills  and  Little  Hell  Gate. 

Of  the  floats  observed  on  ebb  currents  Nos.  11,  12  and  13,  August  25,  2(i  and  27, 
passed  into  and  down  the  Hudson  river.  No.  13  covered  the  entire  length  north  of 
Bronx  Kills,  6.95  miles.  Its  mean  velocity  was  1.30  and  its  maximum  2.36  miles  per 
hour. 

Eddies  which  may  favor  deposition  of  sediment  occur  at  certain  stages  of  the 
tide  at  each  end  of  the  Harlem  river  and  last  for  a  considerable  interval,  as  illus- 
trated by  the  following  examples: 

Float  No.  2,  set  out  August  15,  drifted  in  an  ellipse  about  1,100  feet  in  length 
west  of  Randalls  Island  from  16  minutes  to  3  hours  22  minutes  after  the  time  of  high 
water  at  Governors  Island,  when  it  was  removed  from  the  water. 

Float  No.  6,  set  out  August  18,  drifted  to  the  west  shore  of  Randalls  Island  2 
hours  57  minutes  after  the  time  of  low  water  at  Governors  Island.  This  float  was  reset 
three  times  in  midstream  and  each  time  drifted  southeasterly  toward  the  Randalls 
Island  shore,  being  finally  removed  5  hours  2  minutes  after  low  water  at  Governors 
Island.  A  strong  current  was  setting  to  the  east  at  this  time  through  Little  Hell 
Gate.  The  wind  was  westerly  but  not  strong. 

Float  No.  9  was  set  adrift  August  21  at  East  One  Hundred  and  Twelfth  street,  just- 
south  of  Little  Hell  Gate  5  hours  6  minutes  after  high  water  at  Governors  Island.  It 
drifted  to  East  One  Hundred  and  Fourth  street  by  Oh.  53  minutes  after  the  time  of 
low  water  at  Governors  Island,  then  northerly  to  above  One  Hundred  and  Seven- 
teenth street  in  3  hours,  and  then  wandered  between  this  point  and  One  Hundred 
and  Fifteenth  street  for  two  hours,  when  it  was  removed.  In  seven  hours  the  ex- 
treme limits  of  its  path  did  not  exceed  0.7  mile. 

Float  No.  12,  set  out  August  26,  passed  under  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson 
River  Railroad  bridge  at  Spuyten  Duyvil  into  the  Hudson  river  52  minutes  before  low 
water  at  Governors  Island,  made  two  circuits  within  450  feet  to  the  south  of  this  point 
and  was  taken  out  about  140  feet  southwest  of  the  point,  where  it  passed  under  the 
bridge  50  minutes  later,  when  its  course  was  northwesterly. 

The  general  conclusions  or  inferences  which  it  seems  fair  to  draw  from  the  float 
records  in  the  Harlem  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  The  flood  current  sets  in  about  one  and  one-half  hour  after  the  time  of  low 
water  of  Governors  Island. 

2.  The  ebb  current  sets  in  at : 

One  Hundred  and  Twenty-second  street,  1  hour  15  minutes  after  high 
water  at  Governors  Island. 

One  Hundred  and  Thirty-first  street,  1  hour  20  minutes  after  high  water  at 
Governors  Island. 


HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY   FLOATS 


191 


1309 
4--IOAM.DEC.2I- 
START  OF  FLOA 


COLLEGE  POINT 

I -.45  P.  M.  DEC  21.-  FLOAT  TAKEN  UP 


FLUSHING      BAY 


RIKERS 
ISLAND 


10.45  A.M.  DEC.2I. 


SCALt  OF  MILES 


Path  of  a  Float  in  the  East  River 


192  DATA    COLLECTED 

One  Hundred  and  Thirty-seventh  street,  1  hour  23  minutes  after  high  water 
at  Governors  Island. 

One  Hundred  and  Forty-second  street,  1  hour  30  minutes  after  high  water 
at  Governors  Island. 

Two  Hundred  and  Nineteenth  street,  1  hour  45  minutes  after  high  water  at 
Governors  Island. 

3.  The  mean  velocity  is  about  1.4  miles  per  hour. 

4.  The  maximum  velocity  is  about  2.3.")  miles  per  hour  on  the  ebb  current,  that 
on  the  flood  being  somewhat  less. 

5.  The  duration  of  slack  water  is  brief,  usually  not  more  than  1~>  minutes. 

6.  There  is  a  preponderance  of  flow  toward  the  Hudson,  the  rate  of  progres- 
sion being  about  two  miles  per  tide. 

7.  The  flood  tides  in  the  Harlem  and  lower  East  rivers  meet  and  the  ebb  cur- 
rents part  in  the  vicinity  of  Randalls  and  Wards  Islands,  causing  variable  currents 
of  small  velocity  at  these  times. 

Upper  East  River.  As  the  characteristics  of  the  upper  East  river,  or  that  part- 
lying  east  of  Hell  Gate,  are  quite  different  from  those  of  the  lower  portion,  the  float 
records  made  in  these  two  parts  of  the  river  will  be  considered  separately. 

Eight  floats  were  observed  in  the  upper  East  river  in  1908  and  seven  in  1909.  The 
length  of  this  part  of  the  stream,  extending  from  Hallets  Point  to  Tlirogs  Neck,  is  eight 
and  three-fourth  miles.  The  presence  of  islands  near  the  western  end  and  the  in- 
fluence of  currents  to  and  from  the  Harlem  river  render  the  hydraulic  phenomena  in 
that  vicinity  complicated,  while  the  tortuous  paths  of  floats  indicate  the  absence  of 
any  one  main  channel  which  conveys  at  all  times  the  greater  part  of  the  flow.  An 
inspection  of  the  Coast  Survey  charts  show  no  well  defined  channel,  but  a  waterway 
varying  from  about  30  to  100  feet  in  depth,  extending  nearly  from  shore  to  shore  be- 
tween Throgs  Neck  and  College  Point.  Here  shoals  to  the  east  of  Rikers  Island 
split  the  westward  current,  which  becomes  further  divided  in  its  approach  to  the 
Manhattan  shore,  and  the  contracted  and  shallow  channels  through  Hell  Gate,  Little 
Hell  Gate  and  Bronx  Kills  cause  an  increase  in  the  velocity  of  the  tidal  flow.  A 
tendency  to  drift  about  some  time  near  Throgs  Neck  is  shown  in  the  following  rec- 
ords: 

Float  62  was  set  out  at  1.25  P.  M  December  20,  1909,  between  Whitestone  Point 
and  Willets  Point  and  was  taken  up  13  hours  45  minutes  later  off  Throgs  Neck.  In 
the  meantime  it  had  grounded  on  the  south  shore  five  times,  due,  probably,  to  a 
strong  northwest  wind.  The  total  record  covered  but  about  four  miles  along  the 
channel  in  this  time. 


HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS  SHOWN  BY  FLOATS 


3:40  P.M.  DEC.  23-FLOAT  TAKEN  UP 


*\\- 30  P. M.DEC. 22 


FLOAT  STARTED 

7:ZO  A 
DEC.  22 


FLUSHING 
lhl5A.M.DEC.22         BAY 


Path  of  a  Fln.it  in  Hio  Kost  'River 


194  DATA    OOLLEOTED 

Float  (54  was  set  out  off  Wliitostone  Point,  at  7.20  A.  M.  December  22,  1909.  By 
11.15  A.  M.  it  reversed  its  direction  \vhenjusteastofKikersIsland.  From  2.15  P.M. 
to  11.30  P.  M.  it  wandered  about  within  three-fourth  mile  of  Throgs  Neck.  By 
2.45  A.  M.  December  23  it  had  progressed  eastward  to  Hewlett  Point,  by  10.20  A.  M. 
it  had  returned  to  a  point  off  Willets  Point  and  at  3.40  P.  M.  it  went  aground  and 
was  taken  up  off  Hewlett  Point. 

Floats  set  adrift  near  Throgs  Neck  may  pass  out  through  Hell  (late  or  they  may 
travel  in  an  easterly  direction  through  the  Sound.  Float  No.  00  illustrates  (lie  lat lei- 
case. 

Float  No.  60  was  set  out  December  14,  1909,  just  west  of  Throgs  Neck  at  2.30 
P.  M.  It  started  to  the  west,  swung  around  by  Little  Neck  bay  and  then  traveled  east- 
ward. Between  11.25  P.  M.  and  4.40  the  next  morning  it  remained  within  a  mile  of 
Barker  Point.  It  then  continued  easterly  until  9.15  A.  M.  Here,  a  mile  east  of  Sands 
Point,  it  made  a  double  spiral  within  a  diameter  of  three-eighth  mile  during  the  time  of 
the  westerly  running  tide,  and  then  at  2.25  P.  M.  proceeded  on  the  easterly  tide  some 
three  and  one-half  miles,  when  it  was  taken  up  one  and  one-fourth  mile  west  of 
Matinicock  Point  at  6.45  P.  M.  December  15. 

.Maximum  velocities  were  observed  in  the  upper  East  river  of  5.0  miles 
per  hour  in  the  narrow  channel  east  of  Wards  Island  on  the  ebb,  and 
4.0  miles  per  hour  just  east  of  Little  Hell  Gate,  and  3.6  miles  per  hour  north  of 
Hikers  Island  on  the  flood.  To  the  east  of  this  point  from  1.5  to  2.0  miles  per  hour 
would  probably  be  more  nearly  correct. 

A  net  progression  of  the  current  from  the  Sound  toward  Hell  Gate  appeared 
probable  from  the  experiments  but  the  results  were  quite  variable  and  the  record  of 
float  No.  65,  covering  three  days,  indicates  that  at  times  this  progression  is  insignifi- 
cant or  altogether  absent. 

From  the  courses  taken  by  the  majority  of  the  floats  in  that  vicinity  the  main 
current  to  and  from  the  lower  East  river  appears  to  run  through  Hell  Gate,  between 
North  and  South  Brother  Islands  and  north  of  Bikers  Island. 

Lower  East  River.  The  length  of  this  part  of  the  river  is  about  seven  and  three- 
quarter  miles.  Two  floats  were  observed  in  the  lower  East  river  in  1907,  eight  in  1908* 
and  nine  in  1909. 

Owing  to  the  swift  currents  which  prevail,  the  number  of  records  embracing  a 
complete  tide  within  the  limits  of  this  part  of  the  river  are  few. 

'Including  one  In  Newtown  creek. 


HAKBOK  CUKKENTS  AS   SlIOWN   BY   FLOATS 


195 


4=18  P.M.  OCT.  3 
FLOAT  TAKEN  UP. 


Path  of  a  Float  in  the  Upper  IBay  and  in  the  East  River 


196 


DATA    COLLECTED 


FLOAT  STARTED         >. 
2--ISP.M.DEC.6-I903 


lO'ASA.M.DEC.S 
FLOAT  TAKEN  UP 


Path  of  a  Float  in  the  Lower  Bay,  Upper  Bay  and  the  East  River 


HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY   FLOATS  197 

A  float  .set  out  March  7,  1907,  opposite  Tier  8  on  the  Hood  current  traveled  eight 
miles  in  4  hours  47  minutes. 

A  float  cast  overboard  March  29,  1907,  east  of  Wards  Island  on  the  ebb  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  8.8  miles  distant,  in  2  hours  50  minutes. 

Float  No.  10,  set  out  August  24,  1008,  traveled  the  length  of  the  lower  East  river 
on  the  ebb  in  2  hours  20  minutes. 

Float  No.  23,  set  out  September  8,  1908,  traversed  on  the  ebb  from  the  north  end 
of  Black\vells  Island  to  the  Battery,  7.4  miles,  in  1  hour  55  minutes. 

Float  No.  36,  set  out  September  30,  1908,  covered  on  the  flood  from  the  Battery 
to  Hell  Gate,  7.7  miles,  in  3  hours  10  minutes. 

Float  No.  38,  .set  out  October  3,  1908,  traveled  on  the  flood  from  the  Battery  to 
Hell  Gate,  7.7  miles,  in  3  hours  8  minutes. 

Float  No.  57,  set  out  December  6,  1909,  traversed  on  the  ebb  from  north  of  Black- 
wells  Island,  7.5  miles,  in  4  hours  10  minutes. 

The  records  of  two  floats,  chiefly  in  the  East  river,  are  of  particular  interest. 
Float  No.  36  was  set  out  near  the  mouth  of  the  East  river  at  7.42  A.  M.  September  30, 
1908.  Following  the  eastern  shore  as  far  as  JSTewtown  creek,  it  passed  up  the  west 
channel  by  Blackwells  Island,  through  Hell  Gate  to  North  Brother  Island.  Here  the 
tide  turned  at  12.34  P.  M.  and  the  float  returned  by  about  the  same  course  on  the  ebb 
current  to  near  the  Queensboro  Bridge,  where  it  was  taken  out.  The  total  distance 
traveled  on  the  flood  was  9.69  miles  in  4  hours  52  minutes.  The  mean  velocity  was 
2.09  and  the  maximum  4.30  miles  per  hour.  On  the  ebb  current  a  velocity  of  6  miles 
per  hour  was  reached  west  of  Blackwells  Island. 

Float  No.  38  was  set  adrift  October  3,  1908,  at  3.02  A.  M.  west  of  the  north  end 
of  Blackwells  Island.  By  3.55  A.  M.  it  had  drifted  three-fourths  of  a  mile  into  Hell 
Gate,  when  the  current  reversed  carrying  it  to  Mill  Rocks  by  4.07  A.  M.  The  float 
proceeded  southward  with  velocities  increasing  to  four  and  a  half  miles  per  hour  west 
of  I.lackwells  Island.  From  Wallabout  bay  it  kept  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river  to 
the  Manhatan  Bridge,  at  one  time  covering  1,000  feet  in  two  minutes  (5.7  miles  per 
hour)  and  at  another  3,100  feet  in  eight  minutes.  From  this  point  the  path  swerved 
to  the  middle  of  the  stream  and  at  7.12  A.  M.  was  1,000  feet  northeast  of  Governors 
Island,  having  traversed  the  last  2.62  miles  in  40  minutes  (3.93  miles  per  hour).  Pass- 
ing down  the  west  side  of  the  Buttermilk  channel  the  float  reached  a  point  1.2  miles 
south  of  Governors  Island  and  about  a  mile  west  of  the  pierhead  line  at  8.44  A.  M. 
Here,  due  to  a  strong  west  wind  and  slack  tide  the  float  drifted  three-fourths  of  a  mile 
easterly  at  a  rate  of  about  two  miles  per  hour  and  at  9.37  A.  M.  turned  northerly, 
passing  througli  the  Buttermilk  channel  and  reaching  Brooklyn  Bridge  at  12.47  P.  M., 


1U8 


DATA    COLLECTED 


DEC.Z9 
IM45A.M 


WHITESTONE 

IZ'ISPM  DEC.  30 


START  OF  FLOAT 

DEC.27-I303/MO:OOA.M 


I2-35A  M  DEC. 30 


COLLEGE  POINT 

II-.45  A.M.DEC.28 


FLOAT  TAKEN  UP 
OEC.30- 4-30  P.M. 


FLUSHING      BAY 


PIKERS 
ISLAND 


DEC.  23. 
DEC.Z9-6:30P.M 


SCALE,  OF  MILES 


DEC  J8-5-10P.M 


4  ••30P.M. t)EC.  27. 


:4nSA.'M  DEC. 28 


Path  of  a  Float  in  the  East  River 


11  ARBOR  CUKKENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY   FLOATS  199 

having  run  ashore  five  times  after  leaving  the  Atlantic  basin.  At  Brooklyn  Bridge 
it  was  reset  TOO  feet  from  the  east  pier,  traveled  northerly  1.43  mile  in  20  minutes 
(4.35  miles  per  hour).  The  maximum  velocity  attained  was  6.8  miles  per  hour  for 
a  distance  of  one-third  mile  when  opposite  Wai  labout  bay.  Passing  to  the  east  of 
Blackwells  Island  the  float  reversed  direction  sharply  with  the  turn  of  the  tide  at 
3.34  P.  M.  1.35  mile  below  its  position  at  the  beginning  of  the  previous  ebb.  It  was 
followed  till  4.18  P.  M.  A  distance  of  10.39  miles  were  traversed  on  one  ebb  in  5 
hours  42  minutes  at  a  mean  velocity  of  1.82  mile  per  hour,  and  9.11  miles  on  the  flood 
in  5  hours  54  minutes  at  a  mean  velocity  of  1.54  mile  per  hour. 

Float  No.  65  was  set  out  in  midstream  off  College  Point  in  the  upper  East  river 
December  27,  1909,  at  10.00  A.  M.     Its  record  follows : 

11.23  miles  on  the  ebb  current  to  near  the  Manhattan  Bridge; 
11.34  miles  on  the  flood  current  to  near  College  Point; 
12.17  miles  on  the  ebb  current  to  near  the  Brooklyn  Bridge; 
11.59  miles  on  the  flood  current  to  near  College  Point; 
10.49  miles  on  the  ebb  current  to  near  East  Third  street,  Manhattan; 
10.22  miles  on  the  flood  current  to  1,500  feet  off  Classon  Point; 
o.G9  miles  on  the  ebb  current  to  near  the  south  end  of  North  Brother  Island; 
4.86  miles  on  the  flood  current  to  near  Whitestone  Point; 
5.54  miles  on  the  ebb  current  to  near  the  Sunken  Meadow; 
4.37  miles  on  the  flood  current  to  near  Tallman  Island; 
8.93  miles  on  the  ebb  current  to  near  East  Forty-second  street,  Manhattan; 
9.48  miles  on  the  flood  current  to  near  Old  Ferry  Point; 

3.88  miles  on  the  ebb  current  to  near  the  northeast  of  North  Brother  Island. 
It  was  taken  up  at  North  Brother  Island,  having  traveled  107.79  miles  in  3  days  G1/^ 
hours  at  an  average  rate  of  1.4  mile  per  hour.  The  greatest  mean  velocity  for  any  one 
tide  was  2.24  miles  per  hour  between  College  Point  and  Brooklyn  Bridge,  and  the 
maximum  velocity  observed  at  any  one  time  was  5.37  miles  per  hour,  between  the  Wil- 
liamsburg  Bridge  and  Second  street,  Brooklyn,  December  28. 

From  the  observations  made  in  the  lower  East  river  the  following  inferences  and 
conclusions  seem  justified: 

1.  The  mean  velocity  of  the  flood  current  was  two  miles  per  hour  and  of  the  ebb 
current  two  and  three-quarter  miles  per  hour,  but  the  velocity  varied  in  different  parts 
of  the  channel. 

2.  The  maximum  flood  velocity  was  6.8  miles  per  hour  and  the  maximum  ebb  cur- 
rent 8.6  miles  per  hour  for  short  periods  only. 

3.  The  periods  of  slack  water  are  brief. 


200 


DATA    COLLECTED 


4.  The  main  ebb  current  passes  west  of  Blackwells  Island.     The  main  flood  cur- 
rent passes  sometimes  to  the  west  and  sometimes  to  the  east  of  the  Island.* 

5.  There  seems  to  be  a  tendency  for  floating  matter  to  drift  toward  the  Brooklyn 
shore  on  the  flood  current.     In  spite  of  a  "  moderate  "  to  "  strong  "  northeast  wind, 
Float  No.  36  drifted  into  three  slips  between  Wallabout  bay  and  Newtown  creek  and 
had  to  be  reset. 

Upper  Bay.  In  1907  there  were  19  float  experiments  made  in  whole  or  in  part  in 
the  Upper  bay;  in  1908  there  were  14  and  in  1909  six. 

Of  these  39  experiments  15  were  with  floats  set  adrift  near  the  proposed  Passaic 
valley  sewer  outlet  east  of  Bobbins  Keef.  This  point  is  3.8  miles  from  the  Battery,  one 
mile  from  St.  George  ferry  slip  and  1.5  miles  from  Constable  Hook. 

The  extreme  points  reached  in  a  single  tide  were : 

In  the  Kill  van  Kull,  Shooters  Island,  5.27  miles  in  4  hours  38  minutes. 

In  the  Hudson  river,  Sixtieth  street,  Manhattan,  9.14  miles  in  6  hours  18  min- 
utes. 

In  the  Upper  bay  (east  side),  Red  Hook,  2.78  miles  in  3  hours  23  minutes. 

In  the  Lower  bay,  2%  miles  southeast  of  West  Bank,  11.50  miles  in  6  hours  0  min- 
utes; and  2  miles  southwest  of  West  Bank,  11.25  miles  in  6  hours  30  minutes. 

An  examination  of  the  records  of  the  above  15  floats  indicates  that  many  passing 
out  with  the  ebb  current  hug  the  shore  of  Staten  Island.  The  float  of  February  26, 
1907,  stranded  at  Quarantine,  that  of  July  8,  1907,  at  Clifton,  and  again  at  Fort 
Wadsworth.  Nos.  29  and  30  stranded  at  Stapleton  and  No.  31  went  ashore  near  South 
Beach.  Of  those  passing  upstream  on  the  flood,  that  of  July  16,  1907,  stranded  on 
Liberty  Island,  No.  28  south  of  Shooters  Island,  and  No.  35  near  Sixty-seventh  street. 
Brooklyn. 


•This  is  confirmed  by  experiments  made  with  12  foot  and  18  foot  rod  floats  by  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 
in  1874. 

In  the  west  channel  there  were  twelve  experiments  on  the  flood  and  eight  on  the  ebb  current.  In  the  east  channel  there 
were  seven  on  the  flood  and  eighteen  on  the  ebb,  with  the  following  results: 


West  Channel 

East  Channel 

Flood 
4.89 
5.77 

Ebb 
6.26 
6.63 

28  per  cent. 

Flood 
4.42 
5.44 

Kbb 
3.41J 
4.04 

Excess  of  mean  velocity 

23  per  cent. 

HARBOK  CUKUENTS  AS  SHOWN  J'.Y  FLOATS 


201 


NEW 


J    E  R  S  EY 


FLOAT  STARTED 
APR.IZ- 1307-  3^00  A.M 


=  00  P.M.  FLOAT  TAKEN  UP 


S    T   A    T    E     N 


IS         AND 


LOWER          BAY 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


I'atli  of  a  Float  in  the  Lower  Bay,  Upper  Bay  and  Hudson  River 


202  DATA    COLLECTED 

Most  of  the  floats  set  out  in  the  Upper  bay  and  followed  for  over  four  hours  passed 
into  one  of  the  adjoining  rivers  or  the  Lower  bay.  The  records  of  most  value  follow: 

A  float  of  February  25,  1907,  was  set  out  in  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  at  10.15 
A.  M.  on  the  ebb.  It  reversed  its  direction  when  near  Norton  Point,  having  traveled 
nine  and  a  half  miles  in  5  hours  30  minutes,  with  a  mean  velocity  of  1.75  mile  per 
hour. 

Another  float  was  set  out  in  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson,  Marcli  25,  1907,  on  the  ebb 
at  9.30  A.  M.  After  traveling  eight  and  one-fourth  miles  in  4  hours  50  minutes,  it 
reversed  its  direction  off  Gravesend  bay.  The  mean  velocity  was  1.75  miles  per  hour. 

March  27,  1907,  a  float  was  set  adrift  east  of  Governors  Island  at  9.30  A.  M.  on 
the  ebb.  It  passed  down  Buttermilk  channel  and  through  the  Narrows  to  a  point  off 
Norton  Point,  where  it  was  taken  up  as  the  tide  was  turning  at  3  1'.  M.  It  had 
traveled  nine  miles  in  5  hours  30  minutes  at  an  average  rate  of  1.6  mile  per  hour. 

April  12,  1907,  a  float  was  set  out  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  near  the  end  of 
the  flood  at  9  A.  M.  At  10.40  A.  M.  it  reversed  direction  about  one  and  one-eighth 
mile  upstream  and  then  passed  down  through  the  Lower  bay,  reversing  its  direction 
just  south  of  Norton  Point  at  3.40  P.  M.,  having  traveled  12  miles  in  five  hours.  The 
average  velocity  was  2.4  miles  per  hour. 

Float  No.  39  was  set  adrift  off  the  outlet  of  the  Sixty-fourth  street,  Brooklyn, 
sewer  October  5,  1908,  at  11.35  A.  M.  It  drifted  on  the  flood  current  near  the  pier- 
heads, through  Buttermilk  channel  and  up  the  East  river  to  Man-of-War  Keef,  between 
Newtown  creek  and  Blackwells  Island,  where  it  reversed  its  direction  at  5.45  P.  M., 
having  traveled  8.97  miles  in  6  hours  10  minutes  with  an  average  velocity  of  1.43  mile 
per  hour. 

Float  No.  49  was  set  adrift  November  16,  1909,  in  the  mouth  of  the  East  river 
at  1.54  P.  M.  Passing  through  Buttermilk  channel  it  reached  a  point  about  a  mile 
from  the  Narrows  at  6.25  P.  M.  Keturning  on  the  flood  it  reversed  its  direction  again 
east  of  Governors  Island  at  12.20  A.  M.  November  17.  By  the  next  turn  of  tide,  which 
occurred  at  5.22  A.  M.,  it  had  only  reached  a  point  off  Bay  Ridge  one  and  one-half 
mile  from  the  Narrows.  From  here  the  flood  current  took  it  to  the  south  end  of  Black- 
wells  Island,  a  distance  of  9.78  miles,  in  7  hours  28  minutes.  It  was  taken  up  off  the 
Atlantic  basin  at  3.35  P.  M. 

Float  No.  57  was  set  out  at  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  December  6,  1909,  at  2.15  P.  M. 
It  went  up  the  west  channel  and  rounded  lUackwells  Island  at  5.20  P.  M.  The  ebb 
current  then  carried  it  to  Bay  Eidge,  the  flood  took  it  to  Gowanus  bay,  the  next  ebb 
took  it  to  Hoffman  Island,  the  flood  carried  it  to  a  point  off  St.  George,  and  on  the 


HARKOR  CURRENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY  FLOATS 


203 


FLOAT  STARTED 
54P.M. NOV.  16-1909 


FLOAT  TAKEN  UP 
3'35  P.M. NOV.  17. 


Path  of  a  Float  in  the  Tipper  Bay  and  East  River 


204  DATA    COLLECTED 

next  ebb  it  reached  Norton  Point.     It  remained  within  a  mile  of  this  point  during  the 
next  flood  current  and  then  passed  out  to  sea  by  Kockaway  Point. 


FLOAT  RECORDS  IN  THE  UPPER  BAY  OF  AT  LEAST  FIVE  HOURS'  DURATION 

Records  Made  on  Flood  Currents.  The  float  of  March  5,  1907,  drifted  from  near 
Bobbins  Eeef  to  West  Fifty-fourth  street,  Manhattan,  or  8  miles,  in  6  hours  45  min- 
utes. 

The  float  of  March  22,  1907,  drifted  from  near  Fort  Lafayette  to  Sixty-sixth  street, 
Brooklyn,  or  2%  miles,  in  5  hours  0  minutes. 

Float  No.  34  drifted  from  near  Bobbins  Beef  to  West  Sixtieth  street,  Manhattan, 
or  9.14  miles,  in  6  hours  18  minutes. 

Float  No.  37  drifted  from  near  Bobbins  Beef  to  Bank  street,  Manhattan,  or  6.85 
miles,  in  6  hours  20  minutes. 

Float  No.  39  drifted  from  near  Sixty-fourth  street,  Brooklyn,  to  East  Fortieth 
street,  Manhattan,  or  8.97  miles,  in  6  hours  20  minutes. 

Records  Made  on  Ebb  Currents.  The  float  of  February  23,  1907,  drifted  from  f5n- 
wanus  bay  to  one-half  mile  south  of  Bonier  Shoal,  or  12  miles,  in  7  hours  0  minutes. 

The  float  of  February  25,  1907,  drifted  from  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  to  a  point 
off  Norton  Point,  or  9.5  miles,  in  5  hours  30  minutes. 

The  float  of  February  26,  1907,  drifted  from  one  mile  northeast  of  Bobbins  Beef 
to  two  and  three-eighths  miles  southeast  of  West  Bank,  or  11.5  miles,  in  6  hours  0  min- 
utes. 

The  float  of  March  27,  1907,  drifted  from  Irving  street,  Brooklyn,  to  off  Norton 
Point,  or  9  miles,  in  5  hours  30  minutes. 

The  float  of  April  12,  1907,  drifted  from  one  and  one-fourth  mile  above  the  mouth 
of  the  Hudson  to  a  point  off  Norton  Point,  or  12  miles,  in  5  hours  0  minutes. 

The  float  of  July  9,  1907,  drifted  from  one  and  one-half  mile  east  of  Bobbins  Beef 
to  two  miles  southwest  of  West  Bank,  or  11.25  miles,  in  6  hours  30  minutes. 

Float  No.  32  drifted  from  one  mile  northeast  of  Bobbins  Beef  to  a  point  off  Hoff- 
man Island,  or  7.53  miles,  in  5  hours  12  minutes. 

A  consideration  of  the  results  obtained  in  the  Upper  bay  leads  to  following  con- 
clusions : 

1.  Floating  matter  starting  in  the  channel   near  Bobbins   Beef  may  within    one 
tidal  period  reach  the  shores  of  the  Hudson  as  far  as  Sixtieth  street,  Manhattan,  or 
of  Staten  Island  at  any  point  in  the  Kill  van  Kull,  Upper  bay  or  Lower  bay  as  far  as 
South  Beach.    It  may  strand  on  the  Brooklyn  shore  at  any  point  south  of  Bed  Hook 
with  a  westerly  wind,  but  a  strong  ebb  current  may  carry  it  out  as  far  as  Bonier  Shoal. 

2.  There  is  a  probability  that  much  will  reach  the  shores  of  the  Kill  van  Kull  or 
Upper  hay  before  passing  out  through  the  Narrows. 


HAEBOK  CUBBENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY   FLOATS  205 

o.  Floating  matter  starting  in  the  channel  at  the  Narrows  on  the  beginning  of 
the  current  might  be  carried  up  the  Hudson  as  far  as  Warren  street,  and  on  the  return 
ebb  current  pass  out  nearly  to  Coney  Island  Light.  But  these  distances  depend  largely 
on  the  land  water  flowing  down  the  Hudson,  the  wind  and  the  tide  due  to  the  phase  of 
the  moon. 

4.  Ordinary  velocities  encountered  in  the  Upper  bay  on  the  flood  are:    Mean,  1.2 
mile  per  hour.     Maximum,  1.8  mile  per  hour. 

5.  Ordinary  velocities  encountered  in  the  Upper  bay  on  the  ebb  are :     Mean,  1.6 
mile  per  hour.     Maximum,  2.5  to  3.1  miles  per  hour. 

Newark  Bay,  Kill  van  Kull  and  Arthur  Kill.  In  1907  two  float  records  were  ob- 
tained in  the  Kill  van  Kull;  in  1908  one  float  record  was  obtained  in  the  Kill  van  Kull 
and  in  1909  one  record  was  obtained  in  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  Newark  bay  and  seven 
in  the  Arthur  Kill  and  Newark  bay. 

April  3,  1907,  a  float  set  out  in  Newark  bay  three-fourth  mile  north  of  Bergen 
Point  traveled  through  the  Narrows  to  a  point  off  Norton  Point  in  5  hours  25  min- 
utes. It  passed  through  the  Kill  van  Kull  in  1  hour  20  minutes. 

April  8,  1907,  a  float  traveled  from  the  east  end  of  the  Kill  van  Kull  5.1  miles 
westerly  on  the  flood  current  in  five  hours  at  a  mean  velocity  of  one  mile  per  hour. 

Float  No.  28  traveled  from  near  Bobbins  Beef  westerly  through  the  Kill  van 
Kull  5.27  miles  in  4  hours  38  minutes  at  a  mean  velocity  of  1.'68  mile  per  hour. 

Float  No.  40  traveled  from  the  mouth  of  the  Joint  outlet  sewer  in  Elizabethport 
up  the  Arthur  Kill  to  a  point  one-half  mile  above  the  Central  Bailroad  of  New  Jersey 
bridge  across  Newark  bay  and  about  500  feet  from  the  west  shore,  a  distance  of  two 
and  three-fourth  miles,  in  three  and  one-half  hours. 

Float  No.  41  traveled  from  the  mouth  of  the  Joint  outlet  sewer  in  the  Arthur 
Kill  to  a  point  one-half  mile  above  the  Central  Bailroad  of  New  Jersey  bridge 
across  Newark  bay  about  1,500  feet  from  the  west  shore,  a  distance  of  3.5  miles,  in  3 
hours  55  minutes. 

Float  No.  42  traveled  in  the  Arthur  Kill  on  the  ebb  current  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Joint  outlet  sewer,  passing  east  of  Frail's  Island  to  a  point  opposite  the  Bahway 
river,  a  distance  of  3.1  miles,  in  2  hours  55  minutes. 

Float  No.  43  was  set  adrift  at  the  bridge  near  the  mouth  of  the  Passaic  river 
just  before  the  beginning  of  the  ebb  current.  It  drifted  toward  the  east  shore  of 
Newark  bay,  where  it  went  ashore  and  was  reset  near  the  bell  buoy.  It  reached  Ber- 
gen  Point  5  hours  20  minutes  after  starting,  having  traveled  6.1  miles  in  6  hours  15 
minutes. 


206 


DATA    COLLECTED 


Path  of  a  Float  in  the  Lower  Bay  and  the  Upper  Bay  and  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  Newark  Bay 


HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY   FLOATS  207 

Float  No.  44  was  sot  adrift  at  the  mouth  of  the  Joint  outlet  sewer  just  before 
the  beginning  of  the  ebb  current.  It  went  north  nearly  to  the  railroad  bridge  and 
then  southerly  to  Tufts  Point,  when  the  tide  turned.  A  strong  northwest  wind  blew 
it  ashore,  so  that  it  had  to  be  reset  seven  times.  The  distance  covered  during  the  ebb 
current  was  5.75  miles  in  (>  hours  10  minutes. 

Float  No.  45  was  set  adrift  at  the  mouth  of  the  Joint  outlet  sewer  at  slack  low 
water.  It  traveled  across  the  mouth  of  Newark  bay  to  Bergen  Point,  where  it  ran 
ashore,  having  drifted  3.05  miles  in  4  hours  50  minutes. 

Float  No.  50  was  set  out  in  Newark  bay  near  Passaic  Light  December  1,  1909, 
at  1.10  P.  M.  It  passed  Shooters  Island  at  5  P.  M.  and  at  G.45  P.  M.  reversed  its 
direction  opposite  Starin's  shipyard,  Port  Richmond.  It  oscillated  between  this  point 
and  Passaic  Light  until  5.15  P.  M.,  December  2,  when  it  passed  down  stream  and  out 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Kill  van  Kull,  reversing  its  course  at  7.50  P.  M.  to  a  westerly 
direction.  The  flood  current  carried  it  to  the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey  bridge 
by  1.50  A.  M.,  December  3,  and  by  the  end  of  the  next  ebb,  9.55  A.  M.,  it  had  passed 
through  the  Narrows  to  Norton  Point. 

Float  No.  Gl  was  set  out  opposite  the  outlet  of  the  Joint  trunk  sewer  at  11.55 
A.  M.,  December  1C,  1909,  near  the  end  of  the  flood  current.  Reversing  just  north  of 
the  railroad  bridge  it  drifted  to  Smoking  Point,  six  and  one-half  miles,  by  6.40  P.  M., 
thence  on  the  flood  to  the  north  end  of  Frail's  Island  by  12.55  A.  M.  December  17; 
thence  to  Tufts  Point  by  5.55  A.  M.  and  from  here  eight  miles  to  a  point  beyond 
Corner  Stake  Light  at  the  mouth  of  Newark  bay  at  1.30  P.  M.  It  remained  within 
a  mile  of  this  point  until  1.30  A.  M.  December  18,  when  it  entered  the  Kill  van  Kull 
and  was  picked  up  at  West  New  Brighton  at  2  A.  M. 

From  these  experiments  it  seems  fair  to  infer  that: 

1.  Floating  material  may  remain  during  several  tidal  cycles  in  Newark  bay  or 
in  the  Arthur  Kill. 

2.  The  distance  traveled  on  one  tide  was  about  six  miles  at  a  mean  rate  of  one 
mile  per  hour. 

3.  During  certain  conditions  of  tide  and  wind  the  resultant  flow  of  the  Arthur 
Kill  is  toward  the  Kill  van  Kull. 

4.  The  distance  traveled  during  a  single  tide  in  Newark  bay  may  be  taken  as 
four  or  five  miles,  with  a  mean  velocity  of  about  0.8  mile  per  hour. 

5.  Floating  matter  will  be  carried  in  the  channel  through  the  Kill  van  Kull  in 
from  one  and  one-fourth  to  three  hours,  depending  on  the  stage  of  tide,  at  a  mean 
velocity  of  from  one  to  two  miles  per  hour.      Maximum  velocities  of  three   miles  per 
hour  may  be  expected. 


208 


DATA    COLLECTED 


X 

KJ 


f  LOAT  STARTED 
II  '55  «.M. 
OEC.1S 


2  OCA  M  DEC. 18 
FLOAT  TAhtN  UP 


Path  of  a  Float  in  Arthur  Kill  and  Newark  Bay  and  Kill  van  Hull 


HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY   FLOATS  209 

Loirer  Bay.  Tliero  were  eight  float  experiments  made  in  (lie  Lower  IKIV  in  1907, 
one  in  1908  and  four  in  1909. 

A  float  on  February  23,  1907,  passed  out  through  the  Narrows  at  10.45  A.  M.  and  at 
2  P.  M.  arrived  at  slack  water  just,  south  of  Rorner  Shoal.  It  covered  seven  and 
one-half  miles  in  three  and  one-fourth  hours  at  a  mean  rate  of  2.3  miles  per  hour. 

A  float  on  February  26,  1907,  passed  through  the  Narrows  at  12.50  P.  M.  After 
traveling  six  and  one-half  miles  it  reversed  its  direction  in  the  Ambrose  channel  at 

4  P.  M.,  having  drifted  at  the  rate  of  two  miles  per  hour. 

A  float  on  March  4,  1907,  passed  the  Narrows  at  3.45  P.  M.  It  drifted  six  and  one- 
half  miles  in  two  hours  at  a  rate  of  three  and  one-fourth  miles  per  hour  and  arrived 
at  slack  water  close  to  the  point  reached  by  the  float  of  February  26  in  the  Ambrose 
channel. 

A  float  on  April  13,  1907,  was  set  out  in  Ambrose  channel  east  of  West  Bank  at 
7.45  A.  M.  In  2  hours  45  minutes  it  reversed  its  direction  in  the  Narrows,  hav- 
ing gone  five  and  one-fourth  miles  at  an  average  speed  of  1.9  mile  per  hour. 

A  float  on  July  9,  1907,  passed  the  Narrows  at  12.55  P.  M.,  passed  to  the  east  of 
West  Bank  Light  at  3.05  P.  M.  and  then  drifted  four  and  one-fourth  miles  southwest 
in  spite  of  a  westerly  wind.  It  had  traveled  six  and  three-fourth  miles  in  four  hours 

5  minutes  at  a  mean  rate  of  one  and  two-third  miles  per  hour. 

Float  No.  55  passed  the  Narrows  November  29,  1909,  at  3.25  P.  M.  It  reversed 
its  direction  near  West  Bank  at  7.40  P.  M.,  drifted  northerly  three  and  one-half  miles 
with  the  flood  and  then  six  and  one-fourth  miles  down  the  Ambrose  channel.  From 
there  the  flood  tide  carried  it  westerly  six  and  one-half  miles  in  about  6  hours  20  min- 
utes. Then  it  was  taken  up  and  46  minutes  later  set  adrift  one  and  one-half  mile 
southwest  of  Romer  Shoal  at  slack  tide.  From  there  it  drifted  southeasterly  past 
Sandy  Hook  and  around  Scotland  Lightship  and  then  four  miles  southerly.  In  all  it 
had  traveled  eleven  and  three-fourth  miles  in  7  hours  24  minutes  at  an  average  rate 
of  1.6  mile  per  hoiir. 

Float  56  passed  the  Narrows  December  3,  1909,  at  7.35  A.  M.  At  9.55  the  tide 
turned  when  the  float  was  a  mile  northwest  of  Norton  Point.  The  flood  carried  the 
float  but  one  and  one-half  mile  up  Gravesend  bay.  On  the  following  ebb  it  drifted  six 
miles  in  7  hours  20  minutes  in  a  southeasterly  direction  to  a  point  off  Rockaway 
Point:  It  was  then  taken  up  and  reset  in  47  minutes  five-eighth  mile  to  the  south, 
after  which  it  drifted  five  and  three-fourth  miles  further  in  2  hours  18  minutes.  Here 
the  current  reversed  its  course  and  the  float  traveled  on  the  flood  three  and  one- 
fourth  miles  in  four  hours.  It  then  drifted  eight  miles  southerly  and  then  easterly 


210  DATA    COLLECTED 

for  5  hours  25  minutes.  It  was  taken  up  three  and  one-half  miles  south  of  Rock- 
away  Beach. 

Float  57  was  set  out  in  the  Narrows  December  7,  1909,  at  10.55  A.  M.  It  drifted 
southerly  two  miles,  then  northerly  to  a  point  off  St.  George  ferry,  about  four  and 
one-half  miles  in  six  and  one-half  hours.  It  then  drifted  to  Norton  Point,  six  and 
one-fourth  miles,  in  4  hours  20  minutes.  The  float  remained  within  a  mile  of  Norton 
Point  during  the  following  flood  current  and  then  drifted  six  miles  in  six  and  one- 
half  hours  toward  Rockaway  Point. 

These  experiments  were  taken  to  indicate  that: 

1.  Floating  matter  is  not  likely  to  drift  back  into  the  Upper  bay  if  it  has  passed 
six  or  eight  miles  below  the  Narrows. 

2.  Under  certain  conditions  it  may  travel  westerly  toward  Raritan  bay  to  a  point 
south  of  Great  Kills,  but  ordinarily  it  will  pass  out  to  sea  in  a  southeasterly  direc- 
tion. 

3.  Floating  matter  passing  out  through  the  Narrows  frequently  passes  close  to 
Norton  Point  and  may  be  diverted  into  Gravesend  bay  during  the  period  of  the  flood 
current. 

4.  The  velocities  of  the  currents  in  the  Lower  bay  are  very  variable,  but  the  mean 
velocity  for  a  tidal  period  does  not  often  exceed  two  miles  per  hour. 

Jamaica  Bay.  No  experiments  with  floats  were  made  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewer- 
age Commission  in  Jamaica  bay,  although  the  drift  of  the  material  carried  by  the  cur- 
rent at  certain  sewer  outlets  was  studied  by  following  small  packages  of  excelsior  im- 
mersed in  the  water. 

Two  sets  of  float  observations  were  made  in  the  vicinity  of  Rockaway  Inlet,  the 
first  in  December,  1906,  and  January,  1907,  by  the  Jamaica  Bay  Improvement  Com- 
mission and  the  second  in  December,  1908,  by  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  United  States 
Army. 

The  Jamaica  Bay  Improvement  Commission  set  out  two  floats  on  the  flood  cur- 
rent near  Rockaway  Point  December  27  and  December  28,  1906,  each  of  which  was 
followed  about  two  and  one-fourth  miles,  one  toward  Beach  channel  and  the  other 
toward  Big  Fishkill  channel.  A  third  was  set  out  January  7,  1907,  just  northeast  of 
Barren  Island  and  was  followed  for  1.34  mile  in  a  northerly  direction. 

Three  floats  were  set  out  in  Beach  channel  December  29,  1906,  and  January  2 
and  January  3,  1907,  just  north  of  Rockaway  Beach,  and  followed  3.54,  3.57  and  4.80 
miles,  respectively,  to  Rockaway  inlet  on  the  ebb  current.  A  fourth  was  set  out 
west  of  Nestepol  Island  January  7,  1907,  and  drifted  southerly  1.25  miles. 

The  United  States  Corps  of  Engineers  set  out  five  floats  December  17,  1907,  on 
the  flood  current  about  two  miles  from  Rockawav  Point  and  within  a  mile  of  Rock- 


HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY  FLOATS  211 

away  Beach.  Those  all  rounded  close  to  Rockaway  Point  and  drifted  eastward  near 
the  shore.  Five  more  were  set  out  just  off  Rockaway  Point  and  were  followed  about 
three  miles  toward  Beach  channel. 

Three  were  set  adrift  on  the  ebb  current  just  north  of  Rockaway  I 'each  and 
about  one  and  one-half  miles  east  of  the  point.  These  rounded  the  point  and  con- 
tinued in  a  southwesterly  direction. 

These  experiments  were  taken  to  indicate  that: 

1.  The  main  tidal  current  enters  and  leaves  Jamaica  bay  close  to  Rockaway  Point. 

2.  The  Hood  current  running  westerly  along  the  south  shore  of  Rockaway  Beach 
and  after  rounding  the  point  generally  keeps  close  to  the  northerly  shore  of  the  beach, 
running  toward  Beach  channel.     Material  entering  on  the  flood  current  may,  however, 
pass  northerly  to  the  east  of  Barren  Island  and  up  Big  channel  or  across  Nova  Scotia 
bar  and  up  Big  Fishkill  channel. 

3.  The  ebb  currents  from  these  channels  meet  near  Barren  Island  and  in  passing 
the  inlet  are  diverted  in  a  southerly  direction. 

4.  The  maximum  flood  currents  noted  outside  Rockaway  Point  were  from  1  to  1.2 
miles  per  hour. 

5.  The  maximum  flood  currents  noted  in  Jamaica  bay  were  from  2.7  to  3.4*  miles 
per  hour. 

(>.  The   maximum   ebb   currents   noted  in  Jamaica  bay  were  about  three  miles  per 

hour.** 

RELIABILITY  OF  RESULTS 

Remembering  that  the  motion  of  a  surface  float  in  the  channel  represents  a  maxi- 
mum rather  than  a  mean  velocity  of  the  water,  and  taking  into  consideration  the  effect 
of  wind,  which  was  always  noted,  the  calculated  velocities  here  reported  are  believed 
to  be  correct  for  the  conditions  of  tide  and  land  water  which  was  flowing  down  the 
rivers  at  the  time  of  the  experiments. 

In  narrow  streams,  such  as  the  Harlem  river,  the  float  sometimes  drifted  ashore 
or  had  its  course  interrupted  by  bridge  piers,  docks  or  passing  vessels.  In  other  cases 
eddies  or  a  winding  channel  increased  the  length  of  the  float's  path. 

To  obtain  the  true  maximum  velocity  of  the  stream  it  would  be  necessary  to  in- 
crease the  observed  velocity  because  its  path  is  more  winding  than  the  main  thread 
of  the  current.  On  the  other  hand  it  should  be  decreased  on  account  of  local  devia- 
tions due  to  piers,  vessels,  etc.  But  with  the  observed  data,  taken  in  connection  with 
the  plotted  courses,  the  results  arrived  at  are  probably  reliable  for  the  conditions 
which  existed.  The  value  of  the  records  in  deducing  general  conclusions  depends 
large! v  on  their  number. 


*East  of  Barren  Island. 

**Soutliwest  of  Barren  Island  and  In  Rockaway  inlet. 


I'll' 


DATA    COLLECTED 


SECTION  II 
riTKRENT  OBSERVATIONS 

Several  sets  of  current  observations  were  made  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the 
velocities  which  prevailed  at  certain  points  were  adequate  to  prevent  deposition  of 
detritus  or  sludge.  The  points  selected  were  at  the  proposed  Passaic  valley  sewer  out- 
let near  Bobbins  Beef,  at  three  points  on  the  Jersey  Flats,  in  the  Upper  bay  and  at 

Uockaway  inlet. 

METHODS  AND  BESULTS  OF  OBSERVATIONS 

To  determine  the  velocity  a  double  can  float  was  set  adrift  from  a  boat  anchored 
at  the  chosen  location  and  the  period  of  time  was  observed  during  which  the  iloat  was 
carried  100  feet  by  the  current.  This  was  done  for  different  depths  by  adjusting  I  lie 
length  of  wire  connecting  the  two  cans.  The  velocity  so  determined  was  assumed  to 
be  that  of  the  water  at  the  depth  of  the  top  of  the  lower  can.  Determinations  of 
velocity  at  depths  of  20  feet  or  more  were  subject  to  error  in  timing  of  perhaps  two 
or  three  seconds  when  taken  for  velocities  of  over  two  feet  per  second,  as  it  was  not 
practicable  to  start  both  floats  in  a  vertical  line.  The  consequence  was,  that  when 
the  top  float  was  set  adrift  its  motion  was  accelerated  by  a  pull  forward  of  the  lower 
float,  which  had  already  reached  an  advanced  position.  This  tendency  was  in  part 
avoided  by  allowing  the  pair  of  cans  to  drift  a  short  distance  before  timing,  so  that 
the  recorded  results  are  believed  to  be  substantially  correct,  even  at  depths  of  40  feet. 

The  direction  of  the  current  was  observed  by  sighting  to  the  float  with  an  azimuth 
compass. 

Robbing  Reef.  Before  taking  up  these  experiments  the  surface  velocity  had  been 
observed  in  connection  with  the  float  experiments  at  the  location  at  different  stages  of 

the  tide,  as  shown  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  I 

VELOCITIES  OF  SURFACE  CURRENTS  AT  IJoitp.ixs 


Time  after  high  water  at  Governors  Island 

Date 

Current 

Velocity 
feet  per  second 

1  hour,    20  minutes  

September  25   1  908 

Flood 

1  2 

2  hours,  30  minutes  

September  22,  1908 

Ebb 

0.6 

2  hours,  50  minutes  .    . 

March  4,  1907 

Ebb 

2  2 

3  hours,    0  minutes  .  . 

June  26,  1907 

Ebb 

3  7 

3  hours,  20  minutes 

October  1    1908 

Ebb 

0  2 

3  hours,  40  minutes  .    .  . 

July  8,  1907 

Ebb 

2  6 

3  hours,  50  minutes  

February  26,  1907 

Ebb 

2  2 

3  hours,  50  minutes 

July  9,  1907 

Ebb 

2  2 

5  hours,  45  minutes.  .  . 

September  18.  1908 

Ebb 

2.8 

HARBOR  CURRENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY    FLOATS 
TABLE  I— Continued 


213 


Time  after  low  water  Governors  Island 

Date 

Current 

Velocity 
feet  per  second 

September  17,  1908 

Ebb 

2  6 

September  16,  1908 

Ebb 

2  1 

March  5,  1907 

Flood 

1  5 

September  28,  1908 

Flood 

1.9 

October  1,  1908 

Flood 

0  3 

September  29,  1908 

Flood 

0.7 

September  26,  1908 

Flood 

1.7 

Being  taken  on  different  days  these  fail  to  show  relative  velocities  on  any  one 
lidal  cycle,  but  they  do  show  velocities  that  may  occur  at  the  times  specified.  The 
velocity  at  times  is  seen  to  be  very  low,  but  this  may  in  part  be  offset  by  the  proba- 
bility that  at  such  times  higher  velocities  may  exist  at  lower  depths. 

The  depth  at  Robbius  Reef,  which  is  on  the  edge  of  the  main  channel,  is  about  50 
feet  at  low  water. 

Two  series  of  velocity  observations  were  taken,  each  covering  practically  the  12 
lunar  hours  of  the  tide— one  at  or  near  the  time  of  spring  tides  and  one  at  or  near 
the  time  of  neap  tides — with  the  intention  of  showing  the  differences  in  velocity  to  be 
expected  from  the  phase  of  the  moon.  As  it  was  impracticable  to  take  most  of  the 
observations  on  the  exact  day  of  springs  or  neaps  the  range  observed  is  probably 
somewhat  less  than  the  extreme  due  to  this  cause. 

The  velocities  observed  each  day  have  been  plotted  with  reference  to  the  time  of 
high  water  at  Governors  Island,  and  the  result  of  each  series  shown  complete  in  one 
diagram.  Where  the  same  period  of  the  tide  has  been  observed  on  different  days  the 
mean  velocity  for  the  observations  at  this  period  has  been  taken. 

Velocities  were  observed  near  the  surface,  mid-depth  and  bottom — generally  4,  20 
and  10  feet  from  the  surface.  From  an  examination  of  the  resultant  diagrams  we  find 
that  the  velocities  shown  in  Tables  II  and  III  may  be  expected  at  this  location. 

TABLE  II 

VELOCITIES  OF  CURRENTS  AT  SI-KINK  TIDES  AT  ROBBINS  REEF 


a.  Slack  High  Water 

b.  Ebb  Current 

Depth  in  feet        

4 
2 
0.6 

20 
2 
0.4 

40 
2 
0.6 

4 
5 
3.6 

20 
4.o 
3.8 

40 
4  to  6 
3.4  to  3.  5 

Hours  after  high  water,  Governors  Island 

Velocity  in  feet  per  second       ... 

214 


DATA    COLLECTED 
TABLE  II— Continued 


c.  Slack  Low  Water 

d.  Flood  Current 

Depth  in  feet  

4 
9.5 
0.8 

20 
9.5 
0.0 

40 
9.5 
0.4 

4 
12.0 
3.3* 

20 
0 

2.8* 

40 
0 

2.6* 

Hours  after  high  water,  Governors  Island  

Velocity  in  feet  per  second  

TABLE  III 

VELOCITIES  OF  CURRENTS  AT  NEAP  TIDES  AT  BOBBINS  REEF 


a.  Slack  High  Water 

b.  Ebb  Current 

4 
2.5 
0.4 

20 
3.0 
0.3 

40 
3.0 
0.2 

4 
6.0 
2.3 

20 
5.5 
2.5 

40 
6.0 
2.3 

Hours  after  high  water,  Governors  Island  

Velocity  in  feet  per  second  

c.  Slack  Low  Water 

rf.  Flood  Current 

4 
9.0 
0.4 

20 
9.0 
0.4 

40 
8.0 
0.0 

4 

1.0 
1.3 

. 

0.5 
1.7 

40 
0.5 

1.8 

Hours  after  high  water,  Governors  Island  

*  Interpolated.    Record  incomplete. 

On  the  Jersey  Flats.  The  method  used  on  the  Jersey  Flats  was  the  same  as  that 
followed  at  Robbing  Reef,  the  particular  object  being  to  determine  the  velocities  near 
the  bottom  that  may  produce  erosion. 

South  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  terminal  the  velocities  were  observed  two 
feet  from  the  surface  and  about  two  feet  from  the  bottom,  the  depth  at  low  water 
being  about  seven  feet.  The  resultant  curve  was  plotted  from  the  work  of  several 
days,  irrespective  of  the  phase  of  the  moon.  The  results  are  given  in  Table  IV. 

TABLE  IV 

MID-DEPTH  VELOCITIES  OF  CURRENTS  IN  FEET  PER  SECOND  SOUTH  OF  THE  PENNSYL- 
VANIA TERMINAL,  UPPER  NEW  YORK  BAY 


Hours  after 
high  water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Hours  after 
high  water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Hours  after 
high  water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Hours  after 
high  water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Slack  low  water 

Flood  current 

Slack  high  water 

Ebb  current 

2.0 

.40 

4.5 

.80 

7.0 

.15 

12.0 

1.15 

IIARBOE   CURRENTS  AS   SHOWN   BY   FLOATS 


215 


Northeast  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  terminal  the  observations  were  taken  in 
a  similar  manner  and  the  depth  was  about  the  same,  but  the  work  extended  over  but 
about  six  hours.  The  results  are  shown  in  Table  V. 

TABLE  V 

MID-DEPTH  VELOCITIES  OF  CURRENTS  IN  FEET  PER  SECOND  NORTHEAST  OF  THE  PENN- 
SYLVANIA TERMINAL,  UITEK  XE\V  YOUK  BAY 


Hours  after 
high  water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Hours  after 
high  water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Hours  after 
high  water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Hours  after 
high  water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

.Slack  low  water 

Flood  current 

Slack  high  water 

Ebb  current 

U 

0.05 

7.0 

0.10 

11.0 

1.10* 

*  Record  incomplete.     The  maximum  velocity  probably  occured  later  than  this. 

Off  Black  Tom  Island  velocities  were  observed  about  three  feet  below  the  surface 
only,  the  depth  at  low  water  being  but  about  six  feet.    See  Table  VI. 

TABLE  VI 

VELOCITIES  OF  CUKUENTS  AT  A  DEPTH  OF  THREE  FEET  UNDER  THE  SURFACE  IN  FEET  PER 
SECOND  OFF  BLACK  TOM  ISLAND,  UPPER  NEW  YORK  BAY 


Hours  after 
high  water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Hours  after 
high   water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Hours  after 
high   water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Hours  after 
high   water 
Governors 
Island 

Velocity 

Slack  high  water 

Ebb  current 

Slack  low  water 

Flood  current 

11.7 

0.00 

2.50 

1.15 

7.7 

0.00 

8.5 

0.80 

Rockaicay  Inlet.  Velocities  were  observed  at  Rockaway  Inlet  in  the  channel  be- 
tween Rockaway  Point  and  Plum  Island  at  about  0.2  and  0.8  of  the  depth,  which  was 
ordinarily  between  40  and  45  feet,  with  the  results  shown  in  Table  VII. 

TABLE  VII 
MEAN  VELOCITY  OF  CURRENTS  IN  FEET  PER  SECOND  IN  ROCKAWAY  INLET 


Hours  after  high  water,  Governors  Island  

0  5 

3 

7 

9 

Tidal  current  

Slack 

Ebb 

Slack 

Flood 

Mean  velocity  ....          

0  0 

3  4 

0  0 

2  1 

CHAPTER    V 

SEWERAGE   AND   SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   WORKS    OF    THE   MUNICI- 
PALITIES   WITHIN    THE    METROPOLITAN 
DISTRICT 

The  natural  growth  of  a  great  population  around  the  waters  of  New  York  harbor 
has  resulted  in  their  defilement  by  sewage  and  manufacturing  wastes  sufficiently  to 
attract  public  attention. 

In  order  to  present  an  accurate  picture  of  these  conditions  the  sewerage  works 
and  conditions  surrounding  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  all  the  important  cities  and 
towns  in  the  metropolitan  district  will  be  described  in  the  following  pages. 

SECTION  I 

SEWERAGE  OF   THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 
BOROUGH  OF  MANHATTAN 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

I'rincipul  Topographical  Characteristics.  The  Borough  of  Manhattan  is  an  island 
having  an  average  width  of  nearly  1%  miles,  an  extreme  length  of  13%  miles  and  a 
total  area  of  a  little  more  than  22  square  miles.  Its  main  topographical  feature  is  a 
ridge  following  approximately  the  line  of  Broadway  from  the  Battery  to  Central  Park, 
and  thence  parallel  to  and  about  one-half  mile  east  of  the  Hudson  river  to  the  northern 
line  of  the  city.  This  ridge  is  broken  through  at  Manhattan  street,  but  runs  thence  con- 
tinuously to  Spuyten  Duyvil  creek.  Generally  speaking,  all  the  district  lying  east  of 
the  dividing  ridge,  except  that  portion  which  drains  out  through  Manhattan  street, 
drains  into  the  East  and  Harlem  rivers  and  all  the  territory  lying  west  of  the  ridge 
drains  into  the  Hudson  river.  In  most  places  the  slopes  toward  the  surrounding 
waters  are  relatively  steep  and  few  serious  difficulties  have  been  encountered  with  re- 
spect to  securing  proper  grades  for  the  sewers  excepting  in  certain  localities  along  the 
water-front. 

Originally  the  topography  of  Manhattan  Island  was  more  or  less  irregular,  the 
ground  rising  gradually,  except  in  a  few  localities,  towards  the  central  ridge  above 
described.  With  the  development  of  the  city  the  irregularities  of  the  shore  line  have 
been  straightened  out  by  the  filling  up  of  bays,  and  by  extending  the  dock  line  to  deep 
water,  and  there  lias  thus  been  formed  a  strip  of  land  from  300  to  500  feet  wide,  with 
its  surface  about  8  to  10  feet  above  mean  tide  around  a  considerable  part  of  the  island. 


218  DATA    COLLECTED 

ACCOM  H*  of  Growth  of  Sewerage  System.  From  1G7G  until  18-19  the  sewers  and 
drains  of  New  York  were  built  without  definite  plan,  the  larger  and  more  important  by 
the  Street  Commissioner,  the  smaller  ones,  usually  rectangular  culverts  with  stone 
sides  and  tops,  ;by  property  owners  to  drain  their  lots. 

Up  to  1849  some  70  miles  of  sewers  had  been  built;  these  have  now  (11)09)  been 
mostly  replaced  by  more  modern  structures.  The  sewer  in  Canal  street,  built  between 
1805  and  1810,  is  the  principal  one  belonging  to  this  early  period  still  in  use;  it  is  in 
bad  repair,  however,  and  should  be  rebuilt. 

When  a  new  water  supply  was  furnished  the  City  from  the  Croton  watershed  in 
1842  improved  plumbing  and  greater  sanitary  conveniences  were  extensively  intro- 
duced; the  effect  of  this  is  seen  in  the  greater  care  given  in  the  construction  of  sewers 
dating  from  that  time. 

The  Croton  Aqueduct  Department,  organized  under  Act  of  the  Legislature  of  April 
11,  1849,  superseded  the  Board  of  Water  Supply  Commissioners  and  the  Croton  Aque- 
duct Board,  who  until  then  had  been  charged  with  furnishing  the  City  with  water. 
Under  the  Aqueduct  Department  was  placed  a  Bureau  of  Pipes  and  Sewers,  in  charge 
of  a  Water  Purveyor,  the  Bureau  having  complete  control  over  the  construction  of 
sewers  after  the  authorization  of  their  construction  by  the  Board  of  Aldermen.  Two 
years  later  the  title  of  the  Bureau  was  changed  to  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  and  Drains,  the 
Water  Purveyor  still  remaining  the  executive  head. 

In  1865  the  State  Legislature  passed  a  general  sewerage  Act  which  required  plans 
for  each  sewerage  district  to  be  filed  before  the  sewers  were  constructed  and  their  cost 
assessed  in  the  district;  and  under  the  influence  of  this  Act  attention  was  more  gen- 
erally given  to  the  matter  of  sizes,  grades  and  proper  materials  of  construction.  This 
law  is  still  in  force.  Under  its  provisions  plans  were  made  for  proper  sewerage  for  the 
territory  south  of  One  Hundred  and  Fifty-fifth  street  by  Alfred  Craven,  Chief  Engineer 
of  the  Croton  Aqueduct  Board,  and  in  later  years  by  the  Department  of  Public  Works 
for  the  territory  north  of  One  Hundred  and  Fifty-fifth  street. 

Owing  to  the  many  changes  which  have  been  made,  the  plans  for  the  sewerage  of 
one  district  having  been  altered  more  than  150  times,  no  correct  plans  of  any  of  the 
older  sewerage  districts  are  obtainable. 

Up  to  18G5,  the  time  when  the  sewerage  Act  went  into  effect,  there  were  aoout  200 
miles  of  sewers  in  use  in  the  city.  Most  of  these  were  built  without  any  definite  plan 
by  private  individuals,  or  by  the  City;  the  records  of  their  locations,  sixes  and  grades 
are  consequently  incomplete  and  unreliable.  The  sewers  are  often  of  improper  sizes 
and  materials,  on  bad  foundations  and  out  of  line  and  grade. 

Mr.  Craven  had  charge  of  the  sewers  and  originated  many  improvements  in  details 
of  construction  between  1805  and  1808,  at  which  time  he  was  succeeded  by  Gen.  Geo.  S. 


SEWERAGE  OF  MANHATTAN  219 

Greene,  who  remained  in  charge  until  April  10,  1870,  when  by  Legislative  action  the 
control  of  the  sewers  was  taken  from  the  Croton  Aqueduct  Department  and  given  to 
the  newly  organized  Department  of  Public  Works,  with  Mr.  Stevenson  Towle  as  en- 
gineer in  charge  of  the  sewer  department.  At  that  time  there  were  about  261  miles  of 
sewers  in  the  city. 

Mr.  Towle  began  immediately  an  examination  of  the  sewers  and  pushed  it  as 
rapidly  as  circumstances  permitted.  In  1873  he  surveyed  and  examined  about  100  miles 
of  the  old  sewers,  finding  many  completely  unserviceable,  generally  too  large,  filled 
with  deposits  which  generated  acids  and  destroyed  the  materials  of  construction.  Many 
also  had  settled  with  their  tops  below  low  water  and  every  rise  of  tide  would  cause  foul 
gases  to  be  driven  back  through  the  traps  into  the  houses. 

Many  of  the  earlier  brick  sewers  built  about  1850  were  circular  in  section,  about  4 
feet  in  diameter,  and  laid  with  lime  mortar.  Frequently  no  mortar  was  used  in  the 
invert,  or  lower  portion,  in  order  that  the  sewage  might  soak  away  into  the  ground  as 
much  as  possible. 

About  1860  the  Department  adopted  an  egg-shaped  section  for  the  sewers,  most  of 
those  built  during  that  period  being  about  4  feet  high  and  3  feet  or  2  feet  8  inches  wide. 
This  proved  to  be  an  advantageous  change,  as  the  greater  concentration  of  flow  made 
stoppages  from  deposits  less  frequent.  The  first  vitrified  pipe  sewers  were  laid  in  1864, 
about  60  miles  having  been  laid  prior  to  1869. 

The  earlier  sewers  usually  terminated  at  the  shore  line,  but  were  extended  from 
time  to  time  as  the  streets  were  graded  out  to  the  'bulkhead  line,  the  almost  invariable 
result  being  the  settlement  of  this  filling  and  consequent  breaking  and  disrupting  of 
the  sewers. 

In  1888  Mr.  Rudolph  Hering  was  engaged  by  Gen.  John  Newton  to  report  on 
the  condition  of  New  York's  sewers.  The  final  unpublished  report,  addressed  to  Mr. 
Thos.  F.  Gilroy,  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  was  dated  May  31,  1889.  It  con- 
tained much  original  data  regarding  the  choice  of  proper  sizes  for  storm  water  sew- 
ers in  New  York,  the  diagrams  being  based  on  continuous  discharge  measurements  of 
the  Sixth  avenue  sewer  at  Third  street,  which  drained  221  acres  of  the  Minetta  lane 
district.  These  data  form  the  basis  of  present  estimates  of  quantities  of  storm 
water  to  be  taken  care  of  by  sewers  in  Manhattan.  The  report  covered  also,  among 
other  things,  recommendations  for  increasing  the  efficiency  and  lowering  the  cost  of 
the  work  of  cleaning  the  sewers. 

Under  the  authority  of  Chapter  378  of  the  Laws  of  1897,  the  Department  of  Pub- 
lic Works  was  changed,  and  the  charge  of  the  sewers  placed  under  a  Commissioner 
of  Sewers,  Mr.  Horace  Loomis  being  appointed  Chief  Engineer. 


220  DATA    COLLECTED 

Later,  under  the  Greater  New  York  Charter,  the  sewers  were  placed  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Borough  Presidents,  with  a  Superintendent  of  Sewers  and  Chief 
Engineer  of  Sewers  in  each  borough;  Mi*.  Horace  Loomis  was  further  retained  as  the 
Chief  Engineer  of  the  Bureau  for  the  Borough  of  Manhattan.  Under  Mr.  Loomis' 
direction,  much  good  work  lias  been  done  towards  improving  and  remodeling  the  sew- 
ers of  New  York,  though  some  of  his  recommendations  have  not  been  acted  upon. 

Practically  all  the  old  sewers  built  prior  to  1849  have  been  replaced  with  new 
ones,  or  put  in  repair,  and  the  sewer  outlets  have,  where  piers  exist,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  been  extended  from  the  bulkhead  to  near  the  pierhead  line.  The  present 
policy  of  the  Bureau  favors,  instead  of  the  construction  of  intercepting  sewers  dis- 
charging at  a  few  large  outlets,  the  discharge,  as  far  as  practicable,  of  each  small 
sewer  through  a  separate  outfall.  The  intercepting  sewers,  owing  to  the  light  grades 
obtainable  along  the  level  river  front,  are  regarded  as  elongated  cesspools  and  deposit 
sewers. 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Sewers.  The  sewers  are,  as  a  rule,  of  brick,  and  egg-shaped  in  section,  the 
most  common  size  being  about  4  feet  high  and  3  feet  wide.  Some  of  the  newer  sewers 
built  in  recent  years,  however,  are  of  concrete. 

Manholes  with  perforated  covers,  for  ventilation,  are  provided  at  frequent  in- 
tervals, and  catch  basins  are  built  at  the  corners  of  the  blocks,  where  needed  to 
divert  the  water  from  the  street  gutters  into  the  sewers. 

The  simplicity  of  the  drainage  problem  has  led  naturally  to  the  development 
of  a  sewerage  system  upon  the  combined  plan;  that  is,  upon  a  plan  in  which  house 
sewage  and  storm  water  are  carried  in  the  same  sewers.  All  the  drainage  districts 
are  practically  independent 

The  outfalls  number  about  172,  and  provide  sewerage  for  the  entire  borough, 
which  has  an  area  of  14,000  acres.  The  Hudson  river  receives,  through  53  outlets, 
the  drainage  from  5,600  acres ;  the  East  river,  through  68  outlets,  the  drainage  from 
3,900  acres,  and  the  Harlem  river,  through  51  outlets,  the  drainage  from  2,600  acres. 

Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  total  city  sewage  is  discharged  from  29  outlets,  the  three 
largest  being  the  East  One  Hundred  and  Tenth  street  sewer,  which  drains  700  acres 
into  the  Harlem  river,  the  Manhattan  street  sewer  discharging  the  sewage  from  723 
acres  into  the  Hudson  river,  and  the  East  Forty-ninth  street  sewer  discharging  the 
sewage  from  616  acres  into  the  East  river.  Thirteen  of  the  29  large  outlets  discharge 
into  the  Hudson,  10  into  the  East  river  and  fi  into  the  Harlem  river. 


SEWERAGE  OF  MANHATTAN 


221 


Roughly  speaking,  of  the  sewage  of  Manhattan,  that  from  about  650,000  people 
is  discharged  into  the  Hudson  river,  that  from  about  1,087,000  into  the  East  river, 
and  that  from  366,000  into  the  Harlem  river. 

Outfalls.  Most  of  the  sewer  outfalls  are  placed  under  piers,  the  discharge  taking 
place  usually  about  20  or  30  feet  back  of  the  end  of  the  pier.  Little  trouble  has,  in 
the  past,  been  experienced  from  the  drifting  or  blowing  of  floating  matter  from  the 
harbor  into  the  sewers.  Many  of  these  outfalls  consist  of  steel-banded  wooden  flumes 
carried  out  on  the  cross  timbers  under  the  piers  or  wharves,  and  strapped  thereto 
with  bands  or  rods. 

The  outlets  of  the  Manhattan  sewers,  with  their  locations,  sizes,  points  of  dis- 
charge, areas  drained  and  date  of  construction,  reconstruction  or  repair,  are  as  given 

in  Table  I. 

TABLE  I 

OUTLETS  OF  THE  SEWERS  OF  MANHATTAN 


Size 

When 

i.  oration 

Point  of 
discharge 

Actual 

Equivalent 
circular 
section 

drained 
Acres 

built, 
rebuilt  or 
repaired 

Dyckman  street 

•j'\7' 

A'    n" 

0^4 

1QQC 

West  171st  street  

K           H 

5'x4' 

4'  6" 

217 

1899 

West  158th  street  

a           tt 

3'  6" 

135  75 

1884 

West  155th  street  

a           it 

]'  g" 

10 

West  152d  street  

H                         (1 

3'  0" 

4  75 

1876 

West  149th  street 

tl                         H 

V   4" 

K      K 

18Q7 

West  148th  street 

It                tl 

1'   4" 

5K. 

1807 

West  147th  street  

It              It 

1'  4" 

5  5 

1009 

West  146th  street  

It                tl 

1'  4" 

5  5 

1893 

West  145th  street 

tt                11 

1'  d" 

c    e 

IftQd 

West  144th  street  

u* 

V  4" 

5  5 

1899 

West  143d  street  

I. 

1'  4" 

5  5 

1897 

West  142d  street  

tl                fl 

4'  0" 

83  5 

lQ7r. 

West  138th  street  .  . 

tl             If 

l'  V 

K     OC 

West  130th  street  

ft              tl 

pipe 
(o/x4')-f-(5/6"x7') 

T  8" 

West  129th  street  

II                tt 

2(4/3"x5'10")  bbl 

7  0" 

633  5 

1891 

West  115th  street  

ft              It 

4'x3' 

3'  6" 

82  75 

J882 

West  108th  street  

tt 

4'  0" 

65  75 

1901 

West  96th  street  

I. 

With  2  outlets 

'  6'  '0" 

416 

ion1! 

l°ku 

DATA    COLLECTED 


TABLE   I— Continued 


Location 

Point  of 
discharge 

Size 

Area 
drained 
Acres 

When 
built, 
rebuilt  or 
repaired 

Actual 

Equivalent 
circular 
section 

West  91st  street 

Hudson  river.  .  . 
«           u 
it           tt 
n           tt 

tt                         14 
41                         tl 
«                          tt 
tt                      tt 
It                      II 
41                      it 
11                      11 
14                         44 
4t                         tl 
44                         14 
II                         41 
14                         tt 
14                         tl 
44                         tt 
44                         tt 
44                         It 
41                         14 
tt                         41 
41                         tt 
tl                         II 
It                         tt 
tt                         tt 
tt                         tt 
tt                         tt 
tt                         tt 
tt                         41 
14                          It 
tl                         41 

4'  0" 
0'  3" 
4'  0" 
4'  0" 
4'  0" 
3'  0" 
2'  10" 
4'  0" 
4'  0" 
3'  3" 
3'  3" 
4'  0' 
3'  3" 
11'  0" 
5'  8" 
4'  0" 
1'  0" 
4'  0" 
4'  0" 
5'  0" 
6'  4" 
5'  8" 
6'  4" 
2'  11" 
4'  0" 
6'  6" 
5'  8" 
10'  8" 
13'  0" 
4'  2" 
4'  0" 
4'  0" 

21.5 
339.5 
49 
505.5 
00.25 
44.5 
19.5 
62.75 
33.5 
11.25 
11.25 
11.25 
11.25 
434.25 
99 
8.5 
11.25 
48 
56.5 
270.25 
152.25 
118 
169.25 
10.75 
23 
53 
18.75 
468 
242 
42.5 
69.25 
46.75 

1883 
1873 
1903 
1868 
1876 
1891 
1897 
1902 
1902 
1867 
1879 
1904 
1863 
1904 

1907 

1891 
1904 
1900 
1908 
1907 
1908 
1892 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1882 

1896 
1888 
1891 

West  80th  street  

5'7i"*5' 
bbl. 

West  72d  street  

West  66th  street      

Weet  59th  street  

bbl. 

West  56th  street  

West  54th  street  

36"x2'4" 
bbl. 
bbl. 
4'x2'8" 
4'x2'8" 
4'x3'  box.  rep. 

4'x2'8" 

/          7'G"  eir.  +  G'xO'          \ 
\          5'6"x4'9"  box           / 

5'xo'  box 
bbl. 
pipe 
bbl. 

West  50th  street  

Weet  48th  street  

West  46th  street  

West  45th  street      

West  44th  street  

West  43d  street  

West  42d  street       ...               . 

West  40th  street  

West  39th  street  

West  38th  street  

West  36th  street  

West  30th  street        .    .           ... 

West  26th  street 

Twin  4'  3"  ell.  bbl. 
Twin  4'  6"  bbl.  rep. 
2  (4'  bbl.)  rep. 
5'x4'6"+5'.\3'6"  bbl. 
3'6"x2'4" 

West  23d  street  

West  20th  street 

West  17th  street  

Little  West  12th  street     

4'  cir.+4'  cir.  +  4'x2'8" 
4'cir.+4'cir.5'x5'+5'x5' 
5'6"x9'6" 
8'xl6'+2  (4'x2'8") 
5'x3'6"  Ell.  rep. 

Clarkson  street   

Vestry  street  

Dey  street 

SEWERAGE  OF  MANHATTAN 


223 


TABLE   I— Continued 


Size 

When 

Location 

Point  of 
discharge 

Actual 

Equivalent 
circular 
section 

drained 
Acres 

built, 
rebuilt  or 
repaired 

Carlisle  street  •  •  • 

Hudson  river  .  .  . 

bbl. 

3'  0" 

25.25 

1891 

ti            ti 

bbl. 

3'  0" 

21 

1886 

tt                n 

bbl 

4'  0" 

14.25 

1905 

Twin  4'  bbl 

5'  8" 

61.5 

1906 

ft            tt 

4'6"x3'  8"  Ell  bbl 

4'  0" 

15.75 

1892 

tt            tt 

bbl 

4'  0" 

58 

1893 

tl            ti 

bbl 

4'  0" 

134.75 

1886 

It            tt 

2  outlets 

5'  8'' 

172.75 

tl            tt 

2  (3'  bbl  ) 

4'  3' 

34 

1892 

ft            tl 

5'x5' 

5'  0" 

128 

tt            It 

bbl 

4'  0" 

25.5 

1898 

ft            ft 

4'x3"  Ell  bbl 

3'  6" 

10 

«            ft 

5'x4'  bbl 

4'  G" 

14.25 

1898 

tt            tt 

5'x4'  Ell 

4'  6" 

GO 

1898 

tt            tt 

4'  bbl  +  5'4" 

G'  0" 

109  25 

1898 

tt            tl 

4'  0" 

45  75 

1895 

It            ft 

4'  0" 

88  25 

1880 

East  3d  street 

ll            (I 

5'  0" 

33.75 

1893 

East  4th  street  

tl            tl 

nine 

2'  6" 

6 

It          ll 

4'x2'8" 

3'  4" 

7.25 

1850 

East  6th  street   

tl            11 

4'x2'8"  egg 

3'  4" 

G 

1895 

tt            tt 

4'x2'8" 

3'  4" 

4  75 

1855 

East  8th  street  

it            It 

4'x4' 

4'  0" 

12.75 

1867 

East  10th  street 

tl            tt 

3'6"x2'4" 

2'  11" 

1907 

East  llth  street 

11          tt 

3'  box 

3'  5" 

7 

1890 

East  14th  street 

ll            ll 

2  (6'x7') 

9'  2'' 

273.5 

1872 

tt           a 

3'  6" 

14.75 

1858 

East  16th  street 

it           it 

5'x3' 

4'  0" 

15.75 

1859 

East  18th  street 

it           tt 

4'x2'8"  egg~f  6'x8' 

"'  9" 

188.5 

1892 

East  21st  street 

ti           it 

5'x4'  ell  bbl 

4'  6" 

142 

1905 

East  23d  street  

ti           it 

bbl. 

4'  0" 

64.5 

1902 

East  24th  street 

tt           ti 

4'  0" 

17. 

1892 

224 


DATA    COLLECTED 


TABLE  I— Continued 


Size 

Location 

Point  of 
discharge 

Actual 

Equivalent 
circular 
section 

Areas 
drained 
Acres 

built 
icbuilt  or 
repaired 

East  26th  street     

3'9"x4'6"  bbl  rep 

4'   1" 

13  25 

1903 

East  28th  street                 .    .    . 

it        n 

4'  0" 

23 

1901 

East  29th  street     

a         tt 

3V  egg 

2'  6" 

2  25 

1886 

East  31st  street          

tt        tt 

1'  3" 

2  25 

1888 

East  33d  street  

tt        tt 

5'6"x8' 

6'  9" 

220  .  25 

1894 

East  36th  street          

tt        tt 

3'G"x2'4" 

2'  11'' 

1  75 

1899 

East  37th  street  

tt        tt 

bbl. 

3'  0" 

1.75 

1898 

East  38th  street   

tt        tt 

4'x2'8"  eg" 

3'  4" 

2.25 

East  42d  street  

tt        tt 

6'  0" 

93.5 

1878 

East  43d  street  

a         tt 

3'6"x2'6" 

3'  0" 

4. 

1880 

East  44th  street         

tt        tt 

3'6"x2'4" 

2'  11" 

8. 

1902 

East  45th  street  

tt        tt 

4'x2'8" 

3'  4" 

7.75 

1861 

East  46th  street   

tt        tt 

pipe 

r  3" 

7.75 

1868 

East  47th  street           

tt         tt 

4'\2'8" 

3'  4" 

7.75 

1861 

East  48th  street  

a        a 

4'x2'8"  rep. 

3'  4" 

9.25 

1889 

East  49th  street   

•i         it 

9'x2'6" 

8'  9" 

616. 

1854 

East  53d  street            

it         tt 

3'6"x2'4" 

2'  8" 

4  25 

1875 

East  64th  street  

a        tt 

4'x2'8" 

3'  4" 

27.25 

1873 

East  57th  street          

a        a 

2'  0" 

14. 

1994 

East  62d  street  

a        a 

3'6"  box 

3'  6" 

138.5 

1894 

East  63d  street       

n        it 

3'6"x2'4"  egg 

2'  11" 

1.75 

1897 

East  64th  street  

a         it 

3'6''x2'0"  egg 

2'  9" 

2.5 

1887 

East  70th  street     

tt         tt 

3'x2'  box 

2'  6" 

4. 

1882 

East  71st  street 

a        a 

3'x2' 

2'  6" 

4.25 

1883 

East  73d  street      

n        n 

3'6"x2'0''  egg 

2'  9" 

4.25 

1890 

East  74th  street         .        .    . 

it        it 

rep 

6'  0" 

332. 

1907 

East  75th  street  

a         tt 

3'6"x2'0" 

2'  9" 

4.5 

1888 

East  76th  street     

a        it 

3'6"x2'0" 

2'  9" 

4.5 

1887 

East  77th  street         

tt        a 

3'6"x2'4" 

2'  9" 

4.75 

1894 

East  78th  street  

it        a 

3'x2' 

2'  6" 

4.75 

1893 

East  79th  street  

a        tt 

44'x4'7"  box  rep. 

5'  0" 

302. 

1899 

East  83d  street   . 

a        it 

pipe 

1'  3" 

2. 

1905 

SEWERAGE  OF  MANHATTAN 


225 


TABLE  I— Continued 


Size 

When 

Location 

Point  of 
discharge 

Actual 

Equivalent 
circular 
section 

drained 
Acres 

built, 
rebuilt  or 
repaired 

East  84th  street 

1'  4" 

loon 

East  86th  street 

4'  fi" 

04  K 

loqr 

East  89th  street  

ti        tt 

5'  0" 

57 

1871 

East  90th  street 

it        tt 

1'  S" 

4 

1804 

East  91st  street 

tt        a 

V  V 

2  25 

1892 

Ave  A  

tt 

bbl 

4'  0" 

9' 

1903 

East  95th  street  

ff                ft 

4'  0" 

92  5 

1891 

East  100th  street 

tt                it 

3'6"x*2'4" 

2'  10" 

3  5 

1896 

East  101st  street 

3'6"x2'G"  ego- 

0'    Q" 

4  25 

1S94 

East  102d  street  

3'6"\9/0"  effe 

2'  8" 

4  5 

1889 

East  103d  street  

14                    tt 

3'6"\2'0"  ee2 

2'  8" 

4  5 

1891 

East  104th  street  

ft                    tt 

3'6"x2'G"  ees 

2'  8" 

4  5 

1891 

East  105th  street  

tt                    tt 

3'6"x2'0"  eee 

2'  8" 

4  5 

1886 

East  106th  street  

tt                    H 

5'6"x7'0" 

6'  6" 

286 

1875 

East  1  10th  street  

tt                    (I 

8'0"xl2'0" 

10'  0" 

700 

1871 

East  1  llth  street  

ft                    tt 

3'6"x2'0" 

2'  8" 

3  75 

1SQ3 

East  115th  street.  .  . 

tt                    tt 

1'  3" 

3  75 

1892 

East  1  16th  street  

ft                    tt 

nine 

1'  3" 

4 

1892 

East  117th  street  

t>                     tt 

1'  0" 

4  75 

1867 

East  1  18th  street  

tt                    tt 

4'  6" 

50  75 

1872 

East  119th  street  

•t                    tt 

1'  3" 

6  5 

1869 

East  120th  street  

ft                    tt 

4'  0" 

38  75 

1867 

East  121st  street  

tt                    tt 

1'  3" 

3 

1899 

East  122d  street  

tt                     -t 

4'  0" 

26  75 

East  124th  street  

tt                    tt 

3'6"x2'4" 

3'  0" 

(3 

1876 

East  125th  street  

tt                     tt 

4'0"\2'S" 

3'  6" 

61  75 

1892 

2d  avenue  

tt                    ff 

3'7"x2'5" 

3'  1" 

9  5 

1871 

3d  avenue  

tt                    ft 

4'0"x2'8" 

3'  5" 

63 

1861 

East  135th  street  

tt                    ff 

4'9"x5'0" 

5'  0" 

184  75 

1880 

East  13Gth  street  

ft                    tt 

j'  o" 

1  5 

1894 

East  140th  street  

(t                     tt 

3'6"\2'4"  etrii 

•-,'  jo" 

21  75 

1896 

East  141st  street  

(t                    ft 

1'  3" 

7  75 

1894 

220 


DATA    COLLECTED 


TABLE  I—Continued 


Size 

When 

Location 

Point  of 
discharge 

Actual 

Kquivalent 
circular 
section 

drained 
Acres 

built 
rebuilt  or 
repaired 

East  142d  street 

1  1  irlcm  river 

4'0"v2'S" 

3'  5" 

1!) 

11103 

East  143d  street       

it          a 

3'6"x2'4" 

2'   10" 

4.25 

1907 

East  144th  street                     .... 

H                     It 

3'6"\"''±" 

2'   )0" 

4  25 

1907 

East  145th  street 

it             it 

1'  0" 

2  5 

1901 

East  145th  street   

II                     II 

6'0"x"/u" 

5'  G" 

9  5 

1901 

East  147th  street                     

If                     ft 

4'0"x2'8" 

3'  5" 

4  75 

1905 

Lenox  (6th)  avenue  

H                     f( 

2  42"  pij>es  into  outlet 

5'  0" 

47. 

1903 

East  151st  street  

It                     tf 

9'  G" 

330 

1903 

7th  avenue  

II                     14 

4'0"x2'S" 

3'  5" 

18.75 

1900 

East  155th  street 

II                     H 

1'  3" 

G 

1888 

8th  avenue   .       

It                     II 

4'0"x2'8" 

3'  5" 

42. 

1887 

East  167th  street 

II                     II 

4'  0" 

94   7;"i 

1893 

East  178th  street 

It                     II 

4'  0" 

117 

1890 

East  201st  street  

II           It 

4'  0" 

196. 

1900 

East  203d  street     

II              II 

3'6"x2'4" 

2'   10" 

8 

1907 

East  204th  street 

it             II 

WxJW 

2'  JO" 

2 

1907 

East  205th  street  ...          

II           11 

4'  0" 

14 

1901 

East  206th  street                   .    ... 

If             It 

3'b"x2'4" 

2'   10" 

3 

1908 

East  207th  street  

II             II 

3'6"x2'4" 

2'  JO" 

12.5 

1907 

East  209th  street     

It             II 

4'  0" 

14.75 

1902 

East  211th  street 

It             II 

4'  G" 

30 

1907 

East  213th  street  

It           It 

4'0"x2'S" 

3'  4" 

8 

1906 

East  214th  street 

It             If 

3'ii"x2'4"  egg 

2'  10" 

8 

1907 

East  215th  street 

It             II 

3'6'x2'4"  egg 

2'  10" 

4 

1908 

East  216th  street  

It           It 

5'0"x'40" 

4'  G" 

13 

1906 

Broadway            .    . 

Ship  canal  .... 

4'  0'- 

43.75 

1902 

SEWERAGE  OF  MANHATTAN  227 

The  following  outlet  sewers  were  reconstructed,  or  were  in  progress,  in  1909 : 

1.  Outlet  sewer  under  Pier  15,  East  river. 

2.  Outlet  sewer  overflows  and  connections  at  Forty-second  and  Forty-third 
streets,  North  river. 

3.  Outlet  sewers  in  Twenty-eighth  and  Twenty-ninth  streets,  East  river. 

4.  Outlet  sewer  between   One  Hundred  and  Thirty-fourth  and  One  Hun- 
dred and  Thirty-fifth  streets,  Harlem  river. 

The  following  were  under  construction  at  the  end  of  that  year : 

1 .  A  sewer  under  Pier  40,  Hudson  river. 

2.  A  barrel  sewer  under  pier  at  foot  of  Twenty-sixth  street,  East  river. 

3.  The  extension  of  the  outlet  sewer  at  the   foot  of  One   Hundred   and 
Eighteenth  street,  Harlem  river. 

Of  the  older  outfalls  the  greater  part  are  at  so  low  an  elevation  as  to  be  sub- 
merged at  high  tide,  thus  sealing  up  the  end  of  the  sewer  and  interfering  with 
ventilation  as  well  as  favoring  the  formation  of  deposits  by  checking  the  velocity  of 
the  flow  in  the  sewer. 

The  present  method  of  discharging  sewage  into  the  harbor  along  the  Manhattan 
water  front  is  unsatisfactory;  it  creates  nuisances  along  the  water  front;  it  pollutes 
the  public  bathing  establishments;  it  surrounds  the  City's  recreation  piers  and  the 
slips  and  docks  whence  steamers  sail  for  foreign  and  domestic  ports  with  disagree- 
able odors;  and  it  produces  unsanitary  conditions  in  the  vicinity  of  market  places 
where  vegetables,  fruits  and  other  infectable  food  products  are  exposed  for  sale,  and 
where,  as  a  matter  of  course,  flies,  rats  and  other  infection  spreading  vermin  abound. 

At  present  the  discharge  of  sewage  takes  place  practically  at  the  surface  of  the 
harbor  water,  with  an  imperfect  admixture  with  incoming  tidal  streams.  The 
sewage  floats  around  on  the  surface  of  the  harbor,  in  the  slips,  under  docks,  piers 
and  buildings;  coats  the  surfaces  of  walls,  piles  and  piers  with  grease  and  filth;  finally 
it  is  carried  away  by  the  ebbing  currents,  still  upon  the  surface,  but  much  diluted 
and  scattered. 

This  is  a  primitive  method  unsuited  to  a  large  city  with  many  miles  of  water 
front  on  a  tidal  harbor.  The  physical  aspects  of  the  problem  are  simple  and  the 
selection  of  the  proper  details  of  construction  to  avoid  such  results  is  a  matter  of 
local  expediency  and  cost  in  each  case. 


228 


DATA    COLLECTED 


Ventilation.  The  ventilation  of  the  sexvers  is  accomplished  through  the  perfor- 
ations in  the  manhole  covers  in  the  streets.  The  air  within  the  sewer  is  changed  and 
refreshed  largely  by  the  changing  volume  of  flow  in  the  sewer  which,  when  increasing. 
drives  out  some  of  the  air  through  the  perforations,  and  when  decreasing,  draws  in 
fresh  air  from  the  street.  Traps  are  used  on  all  house  connections.  In  some  portions 
of  the  city,  notably  in  the  older  parts  near  the  water  front,  the  ventilation  is  very  de- 
fective as  a  result  of  the  settlement  of  the  sewers,  the  entrance  of  tide  water,  and  sub- 
mergence of  the  outlets.  Nuisances  frequently  result  in  many  districts  where  steam 
and  hot  water  are  discharged  into  the  sewers,  hot  vapors  rising  to  the  upper  sections 
and  issuing  through  the  manhole  covers  disseminating  odors  of  cooked  sewage 
through  the  neighborhood.  Improvements  in  this  direction  are  imperatively  needed. 

Growth  of  System.  The  growth  of  Manhattan's  sewerage  system  since  1849,  year 
by  year,  is  exhibited  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II 

GKOWTH  OF  MANHATTAN'S  SEWER  SYSTEM 


Year 

Miles  of 
Sewers  Built 
Each  Year 

Total  Miles 
of  Sewers 

Year 

Miles  of 
Sewers  Built 
Each  Year 

Total  Miles 
of  Sewers 

Before  1849      

69  7 

69  7 

December  1866  

7.0 

209  0 

December  1849       

3  3 

73  0 

«           1867   

19  9 

228  9 

"           1850 

11  7 

84  7 

"           1868 

15  6 

244  5 

<<          1851  

11  9 

96  6 

"           1869  

16  3 

260  8 

"          1852        

12  4 

109  0 

April            1871   . 

15  I 

275  9 

"          1853 

13  9 

122  9 

"             J872 

12  1 

288  0 

1854   

13  9 

136  8 

<«              1873  

17  3 

309.3 

"          1855            .... 

7  3 

144  1 

December    1873 

13  7 

322  0 

"          1856 

9  3 

153  4 

"           1874 

17  0 

339  0 

1857         

2  0 

155  4 

"          1875  

12  7 

351.7 

"          1858 

6  8 

162  2 

"          1876  . 

4  9 

356  6 

"          1859 

7  9 

170  1 

1877 

5  8 

362  4 

"          i860     

7  0 

177  1 

"          J878  

6.8 

369.2 

"          1861       

5  5 

182  6 

"          1879  . 

2.4 

371.6 

"          1862  
"          1863 

3.7 
3  8 

186.3 
190  i 

1880  
"          1881 

6.1 
5  4 

377.7 
383.1 

«          1864  

4  5 

194  6 

"           1882  

8.0 

391.1 

"          1865 

7  4 

202  0 

"          1883  

7.0 

398.1 

SEWERAGE  OF  MANHATTAN 
TABLE  II— Continued 


229 


Year 

Miles  of 
Sewers  Built 
Each  Year 

Total  Miles 
of  Sewers 

Year 

Miles  of 
Sewers  Built 
Each  Year 

Total  Miles 
of  Sewers 

December    1884  .  .  . 

10.3 

408.4 

December  1897  

10.9 

483.1 

"           18S5  

2.0 

4J0.4 

1898  

1  0 

484  1 

"           1886 

3  8 

414  2 

1899  

4  9 

489  0 

1887  

7.3 

421.5 

1900  

5.6 

494.6 

1888  

7.0 

429.1 

1901  

2.3 

496.9 

"           1889 

4  0 

433  7 

1902  

3  7 

500  6 

1890  

4.2 

437.9 

1903  

4.5 

505.1 

1891.. 

6.4 

444.3 

1904.. 

2.5 

507.6 

1892 

5  1 

449  4 

1905  

3  8 

511  4 

1893  

6.4 

455.8 

1906  

2.4 

513.8 

1894  

6.2 

462.0 

1907  

4.2 

518.0 

1895  

6.0 

468.0 

1908  

2.7 

521.7 

1896  

4.2 

472.2 

The  sewerage  system  is  estimated  to  have  cost  upwards  of  $26,000,000,  but  no  rec- 
ords are  available  showing  the  actual  amounts  laid  out,  particularly  in  the  earlier  years. 
The  following  sewers  were  built  during  1909  by  private  parties  and  corporations  hav- 
ing underground  interests  and  by  the  Sewer  Bureau: 

Feet. 

1,922 
711 
86 
705 
8,423 
7,022 


1.  By  private  parties  under  Sewer  Bureau  supervision 

'2.  By  the  Hudson  and  Manhattan  Railroad  Company 

3.  By  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad  Company.  . 

4.  By  the  Pennsylvania  Tunnel  and  Terminal  Company 

5.  By  the  Public  Service  Commission 

0.  By  the  Bureau  of  Sewers 


From  this  it  appears  that  the  Sewer  Bureau  built  and  supervised  the  construction 
of  less  than  one-half  the  total  mileage  constructed  during  this  year. 

Unscicered  Streets.  Mr.  Loomis,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers,  estimates 
that  at  the  end  of  1909  there  Avere  23  miles  of  unsewercd  streets  in  the  borough,  many 
of  these  being  single  blocks  in  built-up  territory. 

Effect  of  Subway  Construction  on  Sewer  Hi/stem-.  Until  the  commencement  of  the 
construction  of  the  rapid  transit  subways  no  particularly  difficult  problems  had  arisen 
with  regard  to  the  alignment  and  grades  of  the  sewers  of  Manhattan,  but  as  nearly  all 
the  principal  sewers  lie  in  streets  which  cross  the  subway  streets  at  right  angles  many 


230  DATA   COLLECTED 

serious  interferences  have  since  been  encountered.  There  is  now  a  prospect  of  addi- 
tional subways  north  and  south  on  First,  Second,  Third,  Fourth,  Fifth,  Sixth,  Seventh, 
Eighth,  Ninth  and  Eleventh  avenues,  as  well  as  on  Broadway  and  West  Broadway, 
and  of  crosstown  subways  on  Canal,  Fourteenth,  Thirty-fourth  and  Forty-second 
streets.  Parts  of  some  of  these  lines  have  now  'been  built  and  parts  of  others  are  under 
construction.  The  borough  is  thus  facing  the  necessity  of  reconstructing  the  entire 
sewer  system  as  possibly  a  cheaper  and  better  plan  than  the  remodeling  of  each  sewer 
when  interfered  with.  The  latter  plan  involves  the  probable  employment  of  inverted 
siphons  for  the  large  storm  water  sewers. 

As  it  wrould  be  impossible  to  provide  overflows  or  reliefs  for  inverted  siphons  in 
many  of  these  locations,  restrictions  of  the  cross  sections  by  deposits  occurring  in 
the  low-level,  horizontal  portions  during  dry  weather  would  tend  to  cause  inundations 
and  flooding  by  back  water.  Such  structures  could  be  cleaned  out  only  with  difficulty 
unless  special  large  submerged  pumps,  for  emergency  use,  were  installed  and  kept 
ready  for  service  at  each  siphon. 

Another  serious  complication  due  to  subway  construction  arises  from  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  streets  are  so  narrow  that  in  building  the  subways  the  sewers  have  been 
crowded  off  to  one  side  into  spaces  too  small  to  permit  of  their  proper  care  and  repair; 
in  some  places  they  have  been  crowded  entirely  off  of  the  streets  upon  private  property. 

In  all  the  sewer  reconstruction  work  which  has  been  undertaken  so  far,  as  a  result 
of  subway  construction,  the  object  has  been  simply  to  restore  the  existing  sewers  with- 
out regard  to  the  future  requirements  of  districts  which  now  have  no  sewers. 

Changes  in  System  Suggested  to  Facilitate  Street  Washing.  Still  another  compli- 
cation is  gradually  coming  to  the  front  due  to  the  modern  tendency  towards  washing 
the  streets  with  water  and  flushing  into  the  sewers  the  street  dirt  and  detritus  not  re- 
moved by  the  Street  Cleaning  Department,  thus  gradually  filling  up  the  lower  compara- 
tively flat  sewers  near  the  outfall  at  the  river  front,  as  well  as  the  sewers  whose  grades 
have  been  flattened  by  reason  of  the  construction  of  the  subways.  To  adapt  the  sewers 
to  the  purposes  of  street  flushing,  the  gradients  should  be  as  steep  as  practicable,  and 
catch  basins  should  be  omitted.  This  in  turn  would  require  the  separation  of  the  house 
sewage  from  the  water  reaching  the  sewers  from  the  streets  and  roofs  of  houses,  for 
the  reason  that  the  house  sewage  must  necessarily  be  collected  at  a  great  enough  depth 
to  drain  basements  and  cellars,  while  the  storm  water  drains  should  be  placed  as  high 
as  the  requirements  of  traffic  on  the  streets  will  permit  in  order  to  take  advantage  of 
all  the  slope  available. 


SEWERAGE  OF  MANHATTAN  231 

Desirability  of  Reconstruction  of  Some  of  the  Seiccrs  on  tlic  Separate  Plan.  The 
reconstruction  of  Manhattan's  sewers  would  involve  great  expense  and  inconvenience, 
and  yet  in  the  long  run,  if  the  projected  lines  of  subways  should  be  built,  it  would  be 
cheaper  to  rebuild  the  entire  sewerage  system  on  the  separate  plan,  where  interfered 
with  by  the  subways,  than  to  try  to  remodel  the  connections  and  restore  the  existing 
system  as  a  repair  job.  Their  reconstruction  would  necessitate  reconnecting  all  the 
buildings  to  the  new  sanitary  sewers  and  installing  in  each  building  pipes  to  convey 
the  roof  water  to  the  new  storm  water  drains. 

Possibly  the  lowering  of  some  of  the  future  subways  at  critical  points  would 
avoid  the  need  for  the  reconstruction  of  some  of  the  sewers. 

Public  Service  Coin-mission  and  the  Sewers.  A  more  effective  co-operation  should 
be  established  between  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  and  the  Public  Service  Corporation. 
The  Bureau  of  Sewers  is  frequently  embarrassed  by  the  authority  conferred  by  Act  of 
Legislature  on  the  Public  Service  Commission  under  which  it  has  the  right  to  remove 
out  of  the  way  all  sewers  and  other  conduits  interfering  with  subway  construction, 
subject  only  to  the  "  reasonable  requirements "  of  the  Borough  President.  Under 
such  conditions,  it  being  impossible  for  the  Public  Service  Commission  to  plan  for  the 
future  sewerage  of  the  whole  borough,  much  money  is  wasted  in  alterations,  removals 
and  the  rebuilding  of  sewers  without  reference  to  a  general  plan  or  policy.  Chief 
Engineer  Looinis,  recognizing  the  necessity  of  reform  in  this  direction  has  repeatedly 
recommended  that  an  exhaustive  investigation  be  undertaken  to  establish  a  policy 
with  respect  to  future  sewerage  that  shall  be  conformable  to  the  requirements  of  the 
rapid  development  of  this  great  metropolitan  area. 

Under  existing  conditions  the  Public  Service  Commission  assumes  that  it  has  the 
right  to  design  and  execute  the  necessary  changes  in  the  sewerage  system.  In  several 
instances  changes  of  considerable  extent  have  been  completed  before  official  notifica- 
tion of  their  necessity  has  been  given  the  Bureau  of  Sewers. 

The  largest  sewer  under  construction  in  the  city  at  the  present  time  (1909),  the 
Duuiic  street  outlet,  is  being  built  by  the  Public  Service  Commission  in  connection 
with  the  Williamsburg  loop  subway.  The  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers 
states  in  his  annual  report  for  the  year  1909  that  the  Commission  "  ignores  the  city 
authorities,  claiming  the  right  to  do  such  work  without  supervision." 

The  reconstruction  of  the  sewerage  of  the  lower  part  of  the  city  upon  the  sepa- 
rate system  has  been  advocated  by  the  Bureau  of  Sewers,  using  deep  pipe  sewers  for 
house  sewerage  and  shallow  sewers  for  storm  water  removal,  to  reduce  stoppages, 


232  DATA   COLLECTED 

facilitate  inspections,  save  in  maintenance  charges   and  simplify    the  problems  con- 
nected with  subway  construction. 

Recommendation.  In  view  of  all  the  circumstances  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
Commission  recommends  that  a  detailed  study  be  undertaken,  in  co-operation  with  the 
Bureau  of  Sewers  and  the  Public  Service  Commission  to  devise  a  comprehensive  scheme 
for  the  rebuilding  of  Manhattan's  sewerage  system,  laying  out  the  new  plan  so  as  to 
utilize  the  existing  sewers  to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible.  The  new  storm  water 
sewers  should  be  located  near  the  surface  of  the  streets  and  the  sewers  for  house 
drainage  should  pass  beneath  the  subways,  or  over  them,  as  circumstances  warrant. 

House  sewage  should  be  intercepted  for  conveyance  to  suitable  points  for  screen- 
ing, or  subsidence,  or  both,  as  necessary  in  each  case,  or  for  crude  discharge.  Proper 
methods  of  discharge  should  be  devised  for  all  localities  whether  the  entire  system  he 
rebuilt  or  not. 

In  connection  with  the  storm  water  sewers  it  may  be  advantageous  to  construct 
the  storm  water  inlets  without  catch  basins  so  as  to  permit  the  washings  from  the 
street  surfaces,  as  well  as  the  snow  in  winter,  to  be  carried  away  by  the  sewers. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  SYSTEM 

The  entire  sewer  maintenance  force  in  Manhattan  comprises  but  GO  carts  and 
from  200  to  about  300  men  and  consequently  the  522  miles  of  sewers  and  (5,300  catch 
basins  in  the  system  are  seldom  examined,  except  during  the  routine  work  of  cleaning, 
until  trouble  is  reported. 

The  sewers  are  not  flushed.  Being  generally  of  ample  size  for  their  respective 
drainage  areas,  it  is  the  practice  to  let  deposits  accumulate  to  a  depth  of  from  10 
to  20  inches,  whence  they  are  removed  through  the  nearest  manhole  by  hand  labor. 
Cleaning  the  sewers  by  contract  has  been  tried  several  times,  but  has  not  been 
found  satisfactory. 

Cleaning  Basins.  During  1909,  11,381  basins  were  cleaned,  and  5,886  examined, 
so  that  each  one  of  the  6,318  should,  on  the  average,  have  been  cleaned  every  5.3 
months,  and  examined  every  13  months. 

Cleaning  Scicers.  The  percentage  of  total  mileage  of  the  sewers  cleaned  and  the 
costs  of  cleaning,  per  foot,  since  1885,  are  given  in  Table  III. 


STRUCTURES  BENEATH  THE 
STREETS  OF  NEW  YORK 

In  addition  to  sewers  the  structures  beneath  the 
'streets  of  New  York  include-. 

Drink i no  water  supply   pipes 
Sa  1 1  wat e  r  fi  re   serv i  ce  p  i  pe s, 

Gas  pipes,      Steam  pipes, 

'Electric-  light  conduits,   'Dec-trie  power  conduits, 
Telephone  conduits,  Telegraph  conduits, 
Pneumatic  mail  tubes,  Subway  railroads. 


OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


SEWEKAGE  OF  MANHATTAN 
TABLE  III 

COST  OF  CLEANING  SEWERS  IN  MANHATTAN 


233 


Year 


Per  cent,  of  total  mileage  of 
sewers  cleaned 


Costs  per  foot  to  clean 


1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909.. 


2.6 

3.6 

4.5 

7.0 

10.4 

5.7 

3.3 

3.9 

3.2 

2.6 

7.7 

9.8 

9.1 

9.1 

11.5 

13.3 

17.1 

24.7 

26.0 

19.5 

28.2 

39.8 

41.0 

47.5 


$0.0054 
.39 
.23 
.26 
.19 
.15 
.13 
.14 
.142 
.121 
.118 
.148 
.134 
.122 
.296 
.185 
.185 
.130 
.090 
.090 
.126 
.097 
.095 
.084 
.069 


A  very  substantial  reduction  in  cost  per  foot  for  cleaning  is  to  be  noted.  Nearly 
half  the  total  mileage  of  sewers  was  cleaned  during  1909,  but  this  is  only  relative,  as 
no  doubt  some  sewers  are  rarely,  if  ever,  cleaned,  while  others  are  cleaned  many 
times  per  year.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  last  10  years  the  percentage  of 
sewers  cleaned  has  increased  from  about  10  per  cent,  to  nearly  50  per  cent. 

The  street  cleaning  and  sewer  maintenance  bureaus  being  entirely  separate  and 
distinct,  considerable  additional  expense  is  thrown  upon  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  by  the 


234  DATA    COLLECTED 

pushing  and  washing  of  street  dirt  into  the  catch  basins  by  the  street  cleaners.  The 
expense  of  removing  the  dirt  from  the  6,300  catch  basins  is  manifestly  much  greater 
than  would  be  the  cost  of  removing  it  from  the  street  surfaces  by  the  street  clean- 
ers. If,  however,  there  were  no  catch  basins,  and  if  the  sewers  were  laid  on  self- 
cleansing  gradients,  it  would  be  possible  to  flush  the  street  dirt,  including  a  large  part 
of  the  snow,  into  the  sewers. 

If  cateh  basins  were  to  be  done  away  with  entirely,  grit  or  deposit  chambers 
and  mechanically  cleaned  screens  would  be  desirable  at  each  sewer  outlet. 

Condition  of  Seicers.  Many  of  the  old  sewers  are  still  in  good  condition,  al- 
though most  of  those  built  with  lime  mortar,  are,  from  disappearance  of  the  mortar, 
so  badly  distorted  by  settlement  as  to  render  inspections  dangerous  or  impossible. 

Ordinance  Against  Steam,  Acids,  etc. — In  some  cases  steam,  very  hot  liquors  and 
acids  have  disintegrated  the  mortar  joints  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause  the  longitu- 
dinal splitting  of  the  sewer  and  the  lowering  of  its  crown. 

The  discharge  of  steam  and  other  objectionable  things  into  the  sewers  is  pro- 
hibited under  the  provisions  of  the  City  ordinances. 

The  ordinances  relating  to  the  discharge  of  steam,  fats,  iron  or  stone  refuse,  and 
chemicals  into  the  sewers  are  as  follows: 

CHAPTER  6,  ARTICLE  9,  SECTION  174,  REVISED  ORDINANCE  OF  1880 

No  connection  with  or  opening  into  any  sewer  or  drain  shall  be  used  for 
the  conveyance  or  discharge  into  said  sewer  or  drain,  of  steam  from  any  steam 
boiler  or  engine,  or  from  any  manufactory  or  building  in  which  steam  is  either 
used  or  generated,  under  the  penalty  of  $50  for  each  and  every  day  during  any 
part  of  which  such  connection  or  opening  may  have  been  used  for  that  purpose. 
This  penalty  shall  be  imposed  upon  and  recovered  from  the  owner  and 
occupants  severally  and  respectively,  of  such  manufactory  or  building. 

Sec.  163.  And  any  manufacturer,  brewer,  distiller  or  the  like,  permitting 
any  substance  to  flow  into  any  sewer,  drain  or  receiving  basin,  which  shall  form 
a  deposit  that  tends  to  fill  said  sewer,  drain  or  basin,  shall  be  subject  to  a 
penalty  of  $50  for  each  offence. 

Sec.  165.  No  butcher's  offal  or  garbage,  dead  animals  or  substance  of  any 
kind  whatsoever  shall  be  placed  therein  or  deposited  in  any  receiving  basin  or 
sewer;  and  any  person  so  offending  or  causing  any  such  obstruction  or  sub- 
stance to  be  placed  so  as  to  be  carried  into  such  basin  or  sewer  shall  be  subject 
to  a  penalty  of  flO  for  each  offense;  any  person  injuring,  breaking  or  removing 
any  portion  of  any  receiving  basin,  covering,  flag,  manhole,  vent  or  any  part  of 
any  sewer  or  drain,  or  obstructing  the  mouth  of  any  sewer  or  drain  shall  be  sub- 
ject to  a  penalty  of  $20  for  each  offense.  Nor  shall  any  quantity  of  marble, 
or  other  stone,  iron,  lead,  timber  or  any  other  substance  exceeding  one  ton  in 
weight,  be  placed  or  deposited  upon  any  wharf  or  bulkhead  through  which  any 
sewer  or  drain  may  run. 


SEWERAGE  OF  MANHATTAN  235 

Sec.  167.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  person  having  charge  of  the  sweep- 
ing and  cleaning  of  the  streets  in  the  several  wards,  to  see  that  the  gutters  are 
properly  scraped  out  before  the  water  is  suffered  to  flow  from  any  hydrant  for 
the  purpose  of  washing  the  same,  in  order  that  no  substance  or  obstruction  be 
carried  into  any  of  the  receiving  basins.  Every  person  violating  this  section 
shall  be  subject  to  a  penalty  of  |5  for  each  offense. 

To  secure  a  conviction,  under  the  section  relating  to  discharging  steam  into  the 
sewer,  however,  the  courts  require  that  steam  found  issuing  into  a  street  sewer  from  a 
connection  be  traced  back  to  its  source,  in  some  way  leaving  no  doubt  as  to  whence  it 
came.  This,  in  many  cases,  is  impossible.  The  difficulties  are  increased  by  the  fact  that 
the  Bureau  of  Sewers  has  no  right  of  entry  in  the  private  properties  connected  with 
the  sewers  and  hence  can  not  send  in  mechanics  and  steam  titters  to  examine  the  pipe 
connections  and  trace  the  discharges  from  hot  pipes. 

In  several  instances  steam  has  entirely  disintegrated  the  mortar  joints  of  the 
sewers.  Further,  it  frequently  boils  the  sewage,  thus  causing  the  evolution  of  foul 
odors  at  manholes  and  making  ingress  to  the  sewer  for  inspections  impossible. 

The  compulsory  introduction  of  condensers  or  steam  traps  on  the  house  connections 
of  all  buildings  where  steam  or  hot  water  is  used,  or  the  extensions  of  exhaust  pipes  to 
the  tops  of  the  buildings,  coupled  with  the  right,  to  the  Bureau  of  Sewers,  to  enter  pri- 
vate properties  for  purposes  of  inspection,  together  with  the  right  to  correct  the  evils  at 
the  expense  of  the  offending  parties,  on  their  failure  to  make  the  necessary  changes  after 
due  notice,  would  put  an  end  to  the  violation  of  the  terms  of  the  present  unenforcable 
ordinance. 

Reconstruction.  In  the  1909  annual  report  of  the  Chief  Engineer  it  is  stated  that 
about  55  miles  of  sewers  in  Manhattan  are  much  out  of  repair,  cost  large  sums  to  keep 
in  order  and  are  liable  to  frequent  stoppages,  resulting  some  times  in  great  damage  to 
adjacent  property.  Most  of  these  sewers  were  laid  in  1868  to  1873. 

Some  24  different  sewers  are  specifically  mentioned  as  being  in  need  of  repairs  or 
of  reconstruction.  Of  these,  three  outlet  sewers  at  the  following  points  are  mentioned : 

1.  At  Albany  street  and  Hudson  river. 

2.  At  foot  of  Seventy-ninth  street,  East  river. 

3.  In  Market  street. 

Troubles  and  Complaints.  Most  of  the  complaints  against  the  sewerage  work  arise 
from  flooded  cellars  due  to  back  water  caused  by  stoppages  in  the  sewers,  and  floods 
from  the  streets  due  to  the  occurrence  of  extremely  heavy  rains  at  times  when  the  sewers 
may  have  become  partly  choked  with  deposits.  Considerable  sums  of  money  are  col- 
lected from  the  City,  annually,  for  damages  from  back  water  and  flooding,  under  a  court 
decision  to  the  effect  that  unless  the  sewer  in  question  had  been  inspected  and  left  clean 


23G 


DATA    COLLECTED 


and  in  good  repair  within  the  previous  six  mouths,  the  City  was  liable  for  the  damages 
shown. 

Difficulties  of  this  nature  are  most  common  in  the  portion  of  the  city  served 
by  old  sewers  along  the  low  lying  streets  near  the  water-front,  where,  from  the  tide- 
locking  of  the  sewers  and  the  flat  slopes  caused  in  many  instances  by  the  settlement 
of  the  sewer,  deposits  accumulate  to  considerable  depths. 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Discharge  Into  Harbor.  All  the  sewers  of  Manhattan  discharge  into  the 
tidal  water  surrounding  the  Borough.  The  discharge  usually  takes  place  at  the  pier- 
head line,  although  some  of  the  sewers  discharge  at  the  bulkhead  line.  No  attempt  is 
made  to  purify  the  sewage.  The  storm  water  from  the  street  surfaces  receives  a  very 
insignificant  amount  of  coarse  screening  and  subsidence  in  passing  into  and  through  the 
catch  basins  at  street  corners,  but  otherwise  everything  that  enters  the  sewers  is  free  to 
pass  out  into  the  harbor  waters  unless  deposited  in  the  sewers  in  places  where  the 
velocities  are  too  slight  to  keep  the  bottom  scoured  clean. 

Sewage  Deposits  Along  Water-front.  In  spite  of  the  catch  basins  at  present  in  use, 
large  quantities  of  solid  materials  are  discharged  into  the  harbor  from  the  sewers,  and 
these  deposits,  and  those  occurring  as  the  result  of  scour  by  the  tidal  currents,  and  freshets 
on  the  water-sheds  of  the  stream  tributary  to  the  harbor,  require  the  continuous  dredg- 
ing of  mud  from  the  bottoms  of  the  slips  and  docks  along  the  river  frontage  of  Manhat- 
tan. The  quantities  of  mud  dredged  by  the  Department  of  Docks  during  the  years 
1903  to  1907,  inclusive,  from  the  slips  and  along  the  shore  line  of  Manhattan,  exclusive 
of  the  dredging  done  on  the  Brooklyn  and  Staten  Island  shores  or  of  that  done  by  pri- 
vate parties  or  in  connection  with  new  construction  works,  are  shown  in  Table  IV. 

TABLE   IV 

CUBIC  YARDS  OF  MUD  DRF.DGED  BY  THE  DOCK  DEPARTMENT  ALONG  THE  SHORES  OF 

MANHATTAN  ISLAND 


Year 

From  the 
North  River 

From  the 
East  River 

From  the 
Harlem  River 

1903     

377,765 

129,502 

11,187 

1904  

291,320 

88,263 

32,490 

1905 

214,566 

159,601 

37,255 

1906 

244  967 

144,418 

18,328 

1907          

189,643 

117,957 

35,375 

SEWERAGE  OF  MANHATTAN  237 

Niiisances.  The  increasing  discharges  of  sewage  into  the  harbor  at  the  pierhead 
line,  unless  improved  methods  of  disposal  are  put  in  force,  will  in  time  bring  about  an 
unbearable  condition.  Even  at  the  present  time  local  nuisances  exist  along  practically 
the  entire  water-front.  The  situation  is  complicated  by  the  movement  of  the  water  in 
the  various  rivers  under  tidal  influences,  and  by  the  tendency  of  the  sewage,  which  is 
usually  warmer  and  of  less  specific  gravity  than  the  harbor  waters,  to  spread  out  upon 
the  surface  instead  of  becoming  immediately  mixed  therewith.  On  the  numerous  trips 
of  inspection  made  by  members  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  fragments  of 
human  feces  have  been  seen  in  the  water  at  practically  every  point  from  the  Battery 
to  Spuyten  Uuyvil  creek  in  the  Hudson,  East  and  Harlem  rivers,  and  at  all  stages  of 
tide.  Further  than  this,  distinct  nuisances  exist  at  many  points. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  tops  of  the  outlet  sewers  at  the  pierhead  lines  are  about 
at  the  level  of  mean  high  tide,  though  some  are  lower.  In  the  larger  sewers  such  as  that 
discharging  at  Oliver  street,  East  Forty-ninth  street,  East  One  Hundred  and  Tenth 
street,  and  Canal  street,  the  rising  tide  backs  water  into  the  sewers  to  great  distances, 
frequently  preventing  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  until  nearly  time  for  the  tide  to  turn. 
In  some  of  these  tide-locked  sewers  deposits  form  rapidly  and  their  removal  by  hand  is  a 
laborious  and  expensive  process. 

Particularly  offensive  conditions  exist  at  Piers  25,  31,  32,  40,  51,  54,  59  and  61,  at 
Twenty-third  street  and  Thirty-eighth  street  along  the  North  river;  at  Oliver  street, 
East  Forty-ninth  street,  East  One  Hundred  and  Tenth  street,  and  the  East  river  from 
Hell  Gate  to  the  Harlem  river,  as  well  as  the  Harlem  river  for  the  greater  part  of  its 
length. 

Crowding  of  Sewage  Shoreward  by  Currents.  It  is  commonly  observed  that  during 
the  prevalence  of  flood  currents  the  discharges  from  the  sewers  are  driven  back  into  the 
slips  and  under  the  wharves  instead  of  being  carried  out  into  mid-stream  and  lost  by 
dispersion  and  dilution.  During  these  periods  when  enormous  quantities  of  clean  sea 
water  are  entering  the  harbor  through  the  Narrows,  and  from  Long  Island  Sound,  the 
concentration  of  sewage  along  the  shore  line  and  in  slips  and  docks  is  greatest.  On  ebb 
currents  the  sewage  that  has  not  been  dispersed  passes  out  into  the  rivers  and  is  more 
or  less  mixed  with  the  land  water  on  the  surface  of  the  outgoing  sea  water  as  well  as 
witli  the  sea  water  itself,  but  the  grease,  excreta  and  other  floating  matters  that  adhere 
to  the  piles,  dock  walls,  piers,  and  harbor  bottom  exposed  at  low  tide,  slowly  putrefy 
and  give  off  offensive  odors. 

Practically  all  of  the  mud  deposits  removed  from  the  slips  and  docks  along  the 
Manhattan  shores,  averaging  annually  over  250,000  cubic  yards  along  the  Hudson 
river  front,  130,000  cubic  yards  from  the  East  river  and  27,000  cubic  yards  from  the 


238  DATA    COLLECTED 

Harlem,  have  their  origin  in  the  discharges  from  the  sewers,  the  deposits  taking  place 
as  the  velocities  of  the  flood  currents  decrease. 

Various  chemical  and  bacteriological  tests,  and  tests  made  with  floats,  as  well  as 
with  dyed  sewage,  confirm  the  general  statements  as  to  the  tide-locking  of  the  sewers, 
the  forcing  of  sewage  back  into  the  slips  on  flood  currents,  the  holding  of  sewage  for 
hours  in  docks  and  unused  slips  and  the  very  unsatisfactory  condition  as  to  dilution 
and  dispersion  that  obtains  along  the  whole  water  front. 

Effect  on  Public  Bathing  Establishments.    The  location  of  public  bathing  estab- 

p 

lishrnents  at  places  where  the  discharges  from  the  sewers  can  pass  through  them,  the 
surrounding  of  recreation  piers  with  sewage,  the  fouling  of  the  docks  and  slips  where 
ocean,  sound  and  river  steamers  berth  and  receive  passengers,  the  location  of  market 
places  in  neighborhoods  when  food  stuffs  may  become  infected  by  flies,  rats,  insects 
and  vermin  that  hunt  their  food  along  the  polluted  water  fronts  should  not  be  tol- 
erated. 

Future  Conditions.  It  is  impossible  to  predict  with  accuracy  to  what  limits  the 
population  of  Manhattan  or  the  ultimate  quantity  of  sewage  from  Manhattan  may 
reach  in  the  distant  future.  In  certain  wards  the  population  is  already  considered 
to  be  greater  per  acre  than  on  any  other  equal  area  in  the  world. 

Whether  the  multiplication  and  improvement  of  rapid  transit  facilities  and  the 
opening  of  suburban  territory  to  cheap  homes  accessible  for  one  fare  will  retard  fur- 
ther excessive  congestion,  whether  the  constant  advance  of  business  into  the  uptown 
districts  will  increase  or  decrease  the  resident  population  in  this  district,  are  ques- 
tions which  do  not  permit  of  precise  answers.  That  the  day  population  in  this  dis- 
trict will  continue  to  increase  for  many  years  there  can  be  no  doubt;  it  is  equally 
certain  that  the  character  of  the  resident  population  will  change  as  business  houses 
and  office  buildings  advance  uptown.  It  is  probable  that  the  quantity  of  sewage  dis- 
charged into  the  harbor  from  this  district  will  increase  as  these  changes  take  place, 
and  about  in  proportion  to  the  changes  in  population  unless  measures  are  taken  to 
prevent  it. 

So  far  as  the  capacity  of  existing  sewers  to  receive  house  sewage  is  concerned  this 
question  is  not  of  importance  for  the  reason  that,  being  built  large  enough  to  dispose 
of  the  storm  water  from  the  streets  and  roofs  of  buildings,  their  capacity  is  ten  to 
twenty  times  greater  than  would  be  required  for  sewage  alone,  so  that  no  complica- 
tions are  likely  to  result  until  the  population  has  increased  to  many  times  its  present 
figures. 

So  far  as  the  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  harbor  waters  is  concerned,  however, 
the  question  is  one  of  great  importance.  With  increasing  population  will  come  increas- 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  239 

ing  pollution  without  a  corresponding  increase  in  tlie  quantity  of  tidal  water  for  di- 
gesting and  dispersing  the  sewage.  The  inevitable  result,  unless  intelligent  over- 
sight and  revision  are  given  to  the  future  sewerage  plans  of  the  district,  will  be  the 
aggravation  of  local  and  the  creation  of  general  nuisances. 

BOROUGH  OF  BROOKLYN 
GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics.  The  Borough  of  Brooklyn  lies  on  the 
western  end  of  Long  Island.  Its  built-up  territory  is  the  largest  in  area,  by  far,  of 
the  boroughs  of  The  City  of  New  York,  although  it  is  second  in  population  to  Man- 
hattan. Brooklyn  has  grown  into  a  large  city  by  the  gradual  amalgamation  of  sev- 
eral separate  towns,  including  Brooklyn,  Flatbush,  Parkville,  Blythebourue,  New 
Utrecht,  New  Lots,  Gravesend,  Williamsburg,  Bushwick,  East  New  York,  Sheepshead 
Bay,  Bay  Ridge,  Fort  Hamilton,  Ben  son  hurst,  Bath  Beach,  Flatlands,  Coney  Island, 
Bergen  Beach  and  Canarsie,  and  the  subsequent  obliteration  of  the  boundary  lines 
between  these  separate  towns  by  the  building  up  of  the  intervening  territory. 

This  borough  has  an  area  of  57  square  miles  and  a  total  water  frontage  on  the 
East  river,  Upper  bay,  Narrows,  Gravesend  bay,  Sheepshead  bay,  Atlantic  ocean  and 
Jamaica  bay  of  upwards  of  30  miles. 

Unlike  Manhattan,  there  are  no  rock  outcroppings  in  Brooklyn,  the  end  of  Long 
Island  being  the  southern  terminus  of  the  great  terminal  moraine.  The  borough, 
therefore,  lies  upon  a  gravel  formation  interspersed  with  strata  of  sand,  clay  and 
alluvium,  and  containing  sometimes  boulders  of  considerable  size. 

The  main  topographical  feature  of  the  borough  is  the  ridge  of  the  moraine,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  about  200  feet  above  sea  level  at  several  points  within  the 
borough,  and  follows  a  nearly  straight  line  from  Fort  Hamilton  through  Bay  Ridge, 
Greenwood  Cemetery,  Prospect  Park  and  Ridgewood  in  Brooklyn,  and  Forest  Park 
and  Richmond  Hill  in  Queens,  passing  about  one-half  mile  to  the  north  of  Jamaica. 
The  edge  of  the  crest  of  this  ridge,  which  drops  off  very  steeply  on  its  southerly  face, 
divides  the  borough  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  the  southerly  of  which  drains  to 
Jamaica,  Sheepshead  and  Gravesend  bays  on  the  Atlantic  side,  and  the  northerly  to 
the  Narrows,  Upper  bay,  East  river  and  Ncwtown  creek.  A  typical  north  and  south 
section  through  Brooklyn,  drawn  from  Brighton  Beach  to  the  mouth  of  Newtown 
creek,  would  show  a  gradual  rise  from  the  ocean,  at  an  average  rate  of  about  10  feet 
per  mile  to  the  foot  of  the  south  slope  of  the  terminal  moraine,  near  Prospect  Park, 
a  distance  of  G  miles;  then  in  less  than  half  a  mile,  a  rise  of  some  80  feet,  followed  by 


240  DATA    COLLECTED 

a  rather  gradual  descent  towards  the  north  to  sea  level  again  at  the  mouth  of  New- 
town  creek,  a  distance  of  5  miles.  All  the  laud  lying  southeast  of  the  foot  of  the  south 
face  of  the  moraine  crest  is  of  the  same  general  character  as  to  slope,  being  very  tint 
and  broken  only  by  slight  rolling  variations  in  the  surface.  At  the  extreme  easlern 
end  of  the  borough  the  distance  from  the  foot  of  the  slope  to  tide  water  is  less  than 
two  miles.  In  this  great  flat  plain  there  are  few  well  defined  drainage  districts  anil 
problems  of  much  difficulty  have  arisen  in  providing  adequate  sewerage  facilities. 
The  main  division  of  the  territory  for  sewerage  purposes  may  be  described  as  follows: 

The  East  New  York  district  is  drained  to  a  sewage  purification  plant  lying  at  the 
southerly  edge  of  the  town,  about  half  way  between  its  east  and  west  lines,  the  effluent 
being  discharged  into  a  tributary  of  Jamaica  bay. 

In  Canarsie  a  few  sewers  discharge  into  nearby  waters.  The  Flatbush  district 
drains  to  Paerdegat  basin,  about  half-way  between  Flatlamls  and  Canarsie.  A  large 
sewer  has  recently  been  completed  to  take  the  sewage  of  a  large  part  of  Flatbush  to  an 
outlet  into  the  Upper  bay  at  Sixty-fourth  street. 

The  sewage  of  Sheepshead  Bay  and  vicinity  is  taken  to  a  sewage  disposal  plant 
on  Shellbank  creek,  at  the  east  end  of  the  district. 

Coney  Island  and  Brighton  Beach  also  drain  to  sewage  disposal  plants  back  of 
each  district  and  discharging  into  Coney  Island  ereek. 

The  sewage  of  Bath  Beach,  Ulmer  Park  and  Bensonhurst,  except  a  small  district 
in  the  eastern  part  of  Bensonhurst,  is  intercepted  for  the  most  part  and  discharged  into 
the  Narrows  at  the  Ninety-second  street  outlet.  There  are  two  or  three  outlets,  from 
this  district,  however,  which  discharge  into  Gravesend  bay. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  sewers  discharging  into  Gowamis  canal,  including  the 
large  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer,  the  balance  of  the  Brooklyn  area  drains  naturally  to 
the  Narrows,  Upper  bay,  East  river  and  Newtown  creek  with  relatively  steep  slopes. 

Owing  to  the  small  sizes  of  the  older  sewers  much  trouble  has  been  had  in  the  last- 
mentioned  districts  owing  to  their  gradual  change  from  suburban  to  urban  settlements. 
To  ameliorate  conditions  many  large  and  expensive  relief  sewers  have  been  built,  to  be 
followed  later  in  some  cases  by  the  building  of  additional  intercepting  storm  water 
sewers  to  relieve  the  already  overburdened  relief  sewers. 

Distribution  of  Population.  The  population  of  Brooklyn  in  1905  was  1,355,100. 
The  older  section  of  the  city  which  drains  towards  Buttermilk  channel,  East  river  and 
Wallabout  bay,  is  quite  densely  populated,  but  the  remainder  of  the  area,  although 
housing  a  very  large  population,  partakes  more  of  the  nature  of  groups  of  suburban 
villages  separated  in  some  cases  by  extensive  areas  of  undeveloped  lands. 


The  East  River  Looking  Northeast  from  near  the  Battery.     The  bottoms  of  the  slips  for  docking  vessels 

are  covered  with  deposits  of  sewage  sludge 


The  East  River  near  Hell  Gate    Showing  a  Sewer  Discharging  from  Manhattan.     Many  sewer  outlets 

are  at  the  bulkhead  line  as  in  this  case 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  241 

Some  of  the  difficulties  that  face  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  in  the  not  distant  future 
may  be  appreciated  from  the  topographical  features  of  the  southerly  half  of  the  bor- 
ough, where  an  area  of  some  thirty  square  miles  lies  in  a  plain  with  an  average  inclina- 
tion towards  tidewater  of  not  over  about  two  feet  in  a  thousand,  and  having  at  places 
areas  of  considerable  extent  lower  than  the  surrounding  lands. 

(Icnerul  Conditions.  The  following  description  of  the  general  conditions  surround- 
ing the  sewerage  of  the  borough  is  quoted  from  the  1907  annual  report  of  Mr.  E. 
J.  Fort,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Bureau. 

"  The  topography  of  the  borough  is  such  that,  in  order  to  provide  proper  drainage 
for  the  whole  area,  it  must  be  divided  into  numerous  drainage  districts,  each  one  of 
which,  in  nearly  all  cases,  has  its  own  separate  and  independent  outlet.  Each  drain- 
age district,  therefore,  contains  an  independent  and  complete  system  of  sewers.  Tide 
water  can  be  reached  on  three  sides  of  the  borough.  The  older  portion  of  the  borough, 
where  the  sewer  systems  are  nearly  completely  built  and  have  been  so  in  most  cases  for 
.some  years  is  divided  into  thirty-nine  drainage  districts.  Drainage  plans  have  never 
been  designed  for  some- of  the  low  lying  land  along  the  shores  of  the  East  river  and  New- 
town  creek.  At  least  two  more  drainage  districts  will  be  added  to  the  above  number 
when  plans  now  under  way  for  these  lands  are  completed.  The  territory  is  to  be  im- 
proved in  the  near  future  and  there  is  immediate  need  for  drainage  plans.  These  plans 
are  now  far  advanced  and  will  be  completed  during  the  coming  summer.  For  the  dis- 
trict along  Newtown  creek  a  '  separate  system '  of  sewers  will  be  necessary,  because  of 
the  slight  elevation  of  legal  grades  above  tidewater  and  because  the  discharge  of  house 
sewage  into  Newtown  creek  is  prohibited  by  law.  It  will  be  necessary  to  pump  the 
house  sewage  into  existing  sewers. 

"  The  suburban  portions  of  the  borough,  where  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  sewers 
are  not  yet  built,  has  been  only  partially  provided  with  drainage  plans.  Sewers  have 
never  been  designed  for  the  low  land  along  nearly  the  whole  southern  boundary  of  the 
borough,  extending  in  places  some  distance  inland  and  comprising  an  area  of  several 
thousand  acres.  The  design  of  sewers  for  this  territory  is  more  difficult  than  for  any 
other  portion  of  the  borough,  and  is  proceeding  rather  slowly  on  that  account. 

"  The  suburban  area,  for  which  sewers  were  designed  some  years  ago,  was  divided 
into  eleven  drainage  districts,  in  a  number  of  which  no  sewers  have  been  built,  and  in 
some  of  which  only  the  outlets  have  been  built.  Where  outlet  sewers  have  not  been 
built  the  drainage  plan  will  be,  or  has  been,  entirely  redesigned,  and  in  nearly  all  cases 
a  '  separate  system  '  of  sewerage  provided.  To  do  this  work  thoroughly  well  is  a  large 
undertaking.  It  should  be  understood  that  some  of  these  drainage  districts  are  of  suffi- 
cient extent  to  support,  and  will  in  the  near  future  support,  a  population  of  several 


242  DATA    COLLECTED 

hundred  thousand  people.  The  drainage  system  is  as  extensive  and  its  design  (outside 
of  the  problem  of  the  proper  disposal  of  the  sewage)  much  more  difficult  than  that  of 
the  average  city  of  equal  population.  A  population  of  100  people  per  acre,  for  which 
the  sewers  are  calculated,  represents  a  purely  residential  development,  about  such  as 
can  be  found  in  parts  of  the  Twenty-third  and  Twenty-sixth  Wards,  and  is  as  dense  a 
population  as  can  reasonably  be  expected  for  years  to  come. 

"  Several  pumping  plants  must  be  built  within  the  next  few  years,  or  before  out- 
lets can  be  provided  for  large  drainage  areas.  Requests  will  no  doubt  be  made  within 
the  next  year  for  the  acquisition  of  small  pieces  of  land  upon  which  to  locate  these 
pumping  plants.  The  first  ones  to  be  built  should  be  those  at  Flatlands  and  Paerdegat 
avenues  and  at  Avenue  V  and  West  Eleventh  street.  A  number  of  auxiliary  pumping 
plants  will  also  be  required  to  enable  house  sewage  to  be  delivered  at  disposal  works 
where  surface  elevations  are  so  slight  that  sewers  cannot  otherwise  be  laid  at  self-cleans- 
ing grades.  These  auxiliary  plants  can  be  placed  at  street  intersections  entirely  un- 
der the  surface  of  the  street,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  acquire  no  land  upon  which 
to  locate  them. 

"  I  wish  to  call  attention  again  to  the  necessity  of  outlets  for  storm  sewers  at  tide 
water  level  at  Avenue  V  between  West  Tenth  and  West  Eleventh  streets,  and  at  vari- 
ous points  along  the  line  of  the  projected  Gravesend  Ship  canal.  Stryker  basin,  Still- 
well  basin  and  Gravesend  basin,  as  at  present  shown  on  the  map  of  the  city,  may  be 
dispensed  with  as  storm  water  outlets,  but  Gravesend  basin  should  be  replaced  by  a 
drainage  canal,  between  West  Tenth  street  and  West  Eleventh  street,  and  extending 
between  Avenue  V  and  the  Gravesend  Ship  canal.  The  Gravesend  Ship  canal  itself,  or 
at  least  a  large  portion  of  it,  is  also  necessary  for  this  purpose,  and  title  to  the  prop- 
erty necessary  should  be  acquired  in  advance  of  the  construction  of  outlet  sewers.  The 
property  required  will  undoubtedly  increase  in  value  hereafter,  and  there  is  every 
reason  for  proceeding  with  the  matter  now. 

"  The  old  sewers  in  the  developed  portion  of  the  borough,  as  well  as  those  still  to  be 
designed  or  built  in  suburbs,  will  continue  to  present  hydraulic  and  sanitary  prob- 
lems for  solution  for  some  years  to  come.  As  the  system  increases  in  extent  and  com- 
plexity and  methods  of  sewage  disposal  are  changed,  and  as  new  pumping  stations  are 
placed  in  operation,  the  maintenance  of  the  system  will  become  a  more  difficult  and 
expensive  undertaking,  and  will  require  more  skill  and  care  to  produce  satisfactory 
results." 

Bureau  of  Sewers.  The  Brooklyn  Bureau  of  Sewers,  one  of  the  departments  under 
the  Borough  President,  is  administered  by  a  Superintendent  of  Sewers.  The  Bureau 
has  two  distinct  and  separate  divisions,  a  maintenance  department  and  an  engineer- 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  243 

ing  department,  under  the  direction  of  the  Chief  Engineer.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Maintenance  all  the  employees  are  civil  service  men. 

The  Maintenance  Department  has  charge  of  inspection  of  connections,  basins  and 
small  sewers  (24-inch  and  under),  of  cleaning  basins,  manholes  and  sewers,  of  repair- 
ing basins,  manholes  and  small  sewers  and  of  the  disposal  plants. 

The  Chief  Engineer  has  charge  of  the  design,  construction  and  inspection  of  new 
work,  and  to  act  in  an  advisory  capacity  to  the  Maintenance  Department  in 
important  matters.  The  work  of  these  two  departments  is  so  adjusted  as  to  avoid  mu- 
tual interference  and  at  the  same  time  place  at  the  service  of  the  Maintenance  De- 
partment, if  needed,  the  Engineering  Department's  knowledge  and  advice.  Under  the 
Chief  Engineer  the  force  is  separated  into  five  divisions,  the  principal  ones  being  in 
charge  of  an  Engineer  of  Design  and  an  Engineer  of  Construction. 

Prior  to  constructing  sewers,  the  Bureau  must  receive  proper  authorization  from 
the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment.  Sewers  can  be  built,  however,  by  a  com- 
bination of  private  citizens,  in  which  case  the  plans  must  be  prepared  and  the  work, 
during  construction,  must  be  inspected  by  the  Bureau.  In  such  cases  a  charge  is 
made  against  the  properties  benefited,  the  amount  being  sufficient  to  cover  the  cost 
of  the  office  and  field  expenses.  Compliance  with  these  rules  relieves  the  properties 
from  future  sewer  assessments.  Responsibility  for  proper  design  and  adequacy  rests 
with  the  City  after  the  bureau  has  approved  and  accepted  privately  built  sewers. 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Deslyn.  The  earlier  sewers  of  Brooklyn  were  designed  to  carry  off  very  moderate 
rainfalls  and,  while  perhaps  satisfactory  in  a  degree  in  those  days,  have  proven  sadly 
deficient  in  capacity  as  the  streets  in  their  districts  have  become  covered  with  imper- 
vious pavements  and  the  areas  of  roofs  and  paved  courtyards  have  increased. 

In  1880  the  late  Julius  W.  Adams  wrote  of  this,  in  "  Sewers  and  Drains  for  Pop- 
ulous Districts,"  that  when  in  185G  he  was  projecting  the  sewer  system  of  Brooklyn 
the  only  rainfall  records  to  be  had  of  individual  rainstorms  were  those  of  a  Dr. 
Minor,  of  Brooklyn,  covering  only  the  years  from  1849  to  1856;  from  these  it  ap- 
peared that  an  allowance  of  one  inch  of  rainfall  per  hour  running  off  from  the  district 
would  be  ample.  He  recognized  that  great  rainfalls  might  be  anticipated  at  long  in- 
tervals, but  reasoned  that  the  resulting  damage  would  be  insignificant.  He  also  re- 
fers, in  commenting  on  these  conditions,  to  the  Report  of  the  Engineer  to  the  Com- 
mission of  Drainage,  Brooklyn,  1859,  from  which  he  quotes  "  No  system  of  sewage  yet 
proposed  in  any  city  contemplates  the  removal  of  excessive  storm  water  by  means  of 
sewers  alone, — such  storms,  for  instance,  as  discharge  for  short  intervals  two  inches  or 


244  DATA    COLLECTED 

three  inches  of  rain  in  one  hour.  These  occur  at  long  intervals  and  are  of  short  duration 
and  the  damage  is  usually  confined  to  limited  areas,  whilst  the  construction  of  sewers 
to  meet  the  contingency  would  be  attended  with  an  enormous  expense  over  the  whole 
city,  both  in  construction  and  repairs,  and  prove  of  doubtful  efficacy  when  suddenly 
called  upon  and  extremely  objectionable  as  conduits  for  the  ordinary  flow  of  sewage." 

The  old  standards  and  methods  remained  in  force  in  the  department  for  manv 
years,  even  so  late  as  1890,  when  the  Greene  avenue  Relief  Sewer  was  designed,  then 
called  "The  Main  Relief  Sewer  of  Brooklyn.''  Its  capacity  was  based  on  the  removal 
of  1,313  cubic  feet  per  second  from  an  area  of  1,325  acres,  corresponding  substantially 
to  a  rate  of  run-off  of  one  inch  of  rainfall  per  hour. 

Until  the  spring  of  1907,  the  legal  plans  for  the  sewers  in  nearly  all  the  outlying 
districts  of  the  borough  were  prepared  by  using  the  invert  grade  or  slopes  of  the  bot- 
toms of  the  sewers  for  calculating  capacities  instead  of  the  hydraulic  grades  or  slopes 
of  the  water  surface  in  the  sewers. 

The  result  of  this  mistaken  policy  was  to  produce  sewers  that  would  overflow  at 
manholes  and  be,  so  to  speak,  drowned  out  whenever  the  flow  approximated  the  maxi- 
mum capacity.  These  plans  are  now  being  revised  and  adapted  to  modern  require- 
ments while  utilizing  to  as  great  extent  as  practicable  the  works  and  outfalls  already 
existing  in  such  districts. 

The  sewers  in  Brooklyn  are  now  designed  on  the  basis  of  a  schedule  prepared 
under  the  direction  of  E.  J.  Fort,  the  present  Chief  Engineer.  In  the  1900  report 
of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  a  full  history  of  the  old  methods  is  given,  together  with  rea- 
sons for  adopting  present  formulas  and  methods.  The  detail  work  of  design  is  done 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  G.  T.  Hammond,  Engineer  of  Design.  The  following  is  an 
abstract  of  the  rules  laid  down  for  future  designs : 

1.  Sewers  taking  house  sewage  only  are  to  be  called  sanitary  sewers  and  those 
taking  rainfall,  storm  sewers  or  drains. 

2.  The  combined  system  is  to  be  used  wherever  practicable. 

a)  The  combined  system  is  to  be  used  on  upper  and  high  portions  of  dis- 
tricts. 

&)  The  limit  is  the  lowest  point  where  storm  water  overflows  can  be  used. 

Below  this  point  the  storm  water  sewers  are  to  run  at  higher  level  than  house 
sewers,  so  as  to  get  free  outlet  to  tide  water. 

c)  The  house  sewage  is  to  be  pumped  from  lower  levels  to  points  of  dis- 
posal. 

3.  Storm  water  is  to  be  excluded  from  sanitary  sewers  in  all  combined  systems  by 
designing  overflows  unless  necessary  to  pump  the  storm  flow. 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  245 

4.  Disposal  works  shall  be  provided  for  areas  draining  naturally  into  Jamaica 
bay,   Sheepshead  bay  and  Coney  Island  creek. 

5.  The  quantity  of  flow  is  to  be  provided  for  on  the  following  assumptions : 

«)   A  population  of  not  less  than  100  per  acre  is  to  be  provided  for;  more 
if  conditions  warrant  it  on  investigation. 

1))   100  gallons  of  sewage  per  capita  is  assumed  to  reach  the  sewers  m  16 
hours. 

c)   Sizes  and  flows : 

8-inch  to  18-inch  sewers  are  to  run  one-half  full. 
18-inch  to  continue  in  line  of  sewers  till  0.7  full. 
All  larger  sewers  to  run  0.7  full. 

(>.     Hydraulic  gradient: 

«)   All  sewers  are  to  be  designed  on  hydraulic  gradient. 
l>)   A  sewer  may  change  in  size  and  shape,  but  shall  still  preserve  the  hy- 
draulic grade  line  and  it  shall  lie  within  the  sewer. 

c)   Changes  of  shape  are  to  be  made  by  dropping  invert  or  widening. 

7.  Formula  for  flow : 

Kutters     n=.013  for  pipe  sewers. 

n=.015  for  brick  and  concrete  sewers. 

8.  Quantities  of  storm  flow  to  be  determined  by  McMath's  formula  for  run-off  in 
conjunction  with  rainfall  records  and  rainfall  intensity  curve  from  the  automatic  rain- 
fall gauge  in  Water  Department, 

The  sewers  are  assumed  to  run  full,  and  to  be  egg-shaped  when  possible. 

The  Setters.  The  sewers  in  Brooklyn  are  of  many  types,  sizes  and  conditions  as  to 
age  and  state  of  repair.  Among  the  older  sewers  are  many  stone  drains  whose  courses 
are  not  known,  as  well  as  many  cement,  vitrified  pipe,  brick  and  concrete  sewers  and 
drains. 

As  a  rule  the  sewers  are  built  on  the  combined  plan;  that  is,  to  carry  both  house 
sewage  and  storm  water.  They  discharge  into  the  nearby  tidal  waters,  or  lead  to  a 
purification  plant,  whence  the  effluent  is  discharged  into  tide  water. 

The  sewers  are  generally  circular  in  shape,  and,  for  sizes  above  24  inches  diameter, 
of  brick  or  concrete.  Vitrified  clay  and  cement  pipe  sewers  have  been  extensively  used 
for  the  smaller  sizes. 

The  sizes  and  courses  of  the  Brooklyn  sewers  are  shown  on  a  map  of  the  borough, 
published  with  the  1907  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers. 

The  sewers  have,  in  many  districts,  proven  too  small,  having  been  designed  on  in- 
complete data,  and  such  extensive  street  and  cellar  floodings  have  resulted  therefrom 
that  a  comprehensive  system  of  relief  sewers  has  been  planned  and  partly  constructed 
for  relieving  the  flooded  districts,  as  hereinafter  described. 


246  DATA    COLLECTED 

Catch  Basins.  Catch  basins  are  provided  at  street  corners  to  intercept  and  retain 
the  heavier  particles  carried  into  the  sewers  from  the  street  surfaces.  It  has  not 
been  considered  feasible,  to  oinit  the  basins  owing  to  the  flat  grades  of  many  of  the 
sewers,  which  act  much  as  sewers  of  deposit  when  the  flow  through  the  sewer  is  not 
rapid.  The  Bureau  considers  that  the  cost  of  removing  deposits  from  the  catch  basins 
is  less  than  the  cost  of  removing  them  from  the  sewers  would  be. 

Ventilation.  Manholes,  with  perforated  covers,  are  built  at  frequent  intervals 
along  the  sewers,  and  ventilation  takes  place  in  the  sewers  by  the  ingress  and  egress 
of  air,  from  the  street,  owing  to  the  varying  volume  of  flow  and  relative  differences  of 
temperature  between  the  sewer  air  and  the  outer  air. 

House  Connections.  House  connections  are  made  in  unpaved  streets  in  conjunc- 
tion with  contracts  for  sewers.  The  connections  are  usually  put  at  intervals  of  20  feet 
on  each  side  of  the  street  and  lead  to  a  point  2  feet  back  of  the  curb  line  where,  if  the 
elevation  of  the  street  surface  will  permit,  they  are  laid  9.5  feet  deep. 

Outfalls.  The  sewers  discharging  into  tide  water  are  in  recent  plans  arranged 
with  the  elevation  of  the  outlet  high  enough  to  avoid  tide-locking.  The  older  outfalls 
are  in  most  cases  placed  so  low  that  high  tides  completely  submerge  them. 

Nearly  all  the  older  sewers  discharge  at  the  bulkhead  line  in  the  docks  and  slips; 
the  newer  ones,  especially  the  modern  district  relief  sewers,  are  extended  out  to  the 
pierhead  line.  A  few  of  the  older  sewers,  the  Fulton  street  sewer,  tor  instance,  have 
been  extended  to  the  pierhead  line  to  ameliorate  the  nuisance  resulting  from  discharg- 
ing into  the  boat  slips,  but  improvements  in  this  matter  are  still  greatly  needed. 

The  troubles  arising  from  the  tide-locking  of  the  outlets  of  the  sewers  have  been 
experienced  and  recognized  for  a  generation,  and  yet  until  recently  little  effort  has 
been  made  to  better  these  conditions.  Evidence  of  the  appreciation  of  these  evils  years 
ago  is  found  in  the  following  comment :  "  From  a  mistaken  view  of  the  purpose  to  be 
secured  by  a  proper  system  of  drainage,  the  tendency  appears  to  be  constantly  towards 
placing  the  outlets  of  the  sewers  at  too  low  a  level,  and  the  only  defect  in  the  system 
of  sewers  in  the  city  of  Brooklyn  grows  out  of  the  mistaken  effort  to  drain  below  tide 
level,  and  the  consequent  sealing  of  the  outlets  of  some  of  the  sewers  by  the  high  tides 
which  usually  accompany  severe  storms."  (Julius  W.  Adams,  Sewers  and  Drains  for 
Populous  Districts,  1880.) 

The  outlets  of  the  Brooklyn  sewers  are  given  in  Table  V. 


SEWERAGE   OF   BROOKLYN  247 
TABLE  V 

OUTLETS  OF  BROOKLYN  SEWEUS 

Into  Xcwtoicn  Creek.  DIAMETER. 

Scott  avenue;  Brooklyn-Queens  Iiiterborough  Sewer 15  ft.  0  in. 

Oakland  avenue 3  ft.  0  in. 

Pink  street 1  ft.  6  in. 

Into  the  East  River,  between  Newtown  Creek  and  \\'allal>out  Channel. 

Freeman  street 2  ft.  G  in. 

Green  street  2  ft.  0  in. 

Huron  street 7  ft.  0  in. 

Grecnpoint  avenue 2  ft.  0  in. 

Quay  street 5  ft.  G  in. 

North  Twelfth  street 6  ft.  6  in. 

North  Fifth  street 2  ft.  G  in. 

Metropolitan  avenue 5  ft.  0  in. 

Grand  avenue 2  ft.  0  in. 

South  Fifth  street 12  ft.  0  in. 

Broadway   4  ft.  0  in. 

Into  Wallaltout  Channel. 

Kent  avenue 9  ft.  0  in. 

Wallabout  place 3  ft.  6  in. 

Clinton  avenue 4  ft.  0  in. 

Carlton  avenue  (through  Navy  Yard )    5  ft.  0  in. 

Raymond  street  (through  Navy  Yard )   5  ft.  10  in. 

Navy  street  (through  Navy  Yard) 6  ft.  0  in. 

Into  East  Rlccr  between  WaUaluut  Channel  and  Buttermilk  Channel. 

Hudson  street 1  ft.  3  in. 

Hudson  street 6  ft.  ()  in. 

Hudson  street 1  ft,  3  in. 

Gold  street 1  ft.  6  in. 

Gold  street  relief  sewer 14  ft.  0  in. 

Bridge  street 1  ft.  G  in. 

Pearl  street 1  ft.  8  in. 

AVashington  street 3  ft.  0  in. 

Main  street 3  ft.  0  in. 

Fulton  street G  f t.  0  in. 

Pierrepont  street 2  ft.  0  in. 

Remsen  street 2  ft.  0  in. 

Joralemon  street 1  ft  6  in 

Atlantic  avenue 3  ft.  Q  in 

Amity  street 1  ft.  o  in. 

Congress  street 1  ft.  o  in. 

Warren  street  (Old  sewer) 

Harrison  street .  4  ft.  6  in. 


248  DATA    COLLECTED 

TABLE  V— Continued 

Into  Buttermilk  Channel.  DIAMETER. 

Degraw  street 1  ft.  6  in. 

Degraw  street  (Gowauus  canal  flushing  tunnel) 12  ft.  0  in. 

Hamilton  avenue  ( Old  sewer) , — 

Sullivan  street 1  ft.  3  in. 

Wolcott  street (»  f t.  0  in. 

Into  Atlantic  Basin. 

Bonne  street 2  ft.  0  in. 

Commerce  street 2  ft.  0  in. 

Verona  street 2  ft.  U  in. 

William  street  2  ft.  0  in. 

Clinton  street 2  ft.  0  in. 

I 

Into  Gowanus  Canal. 

Butler  street  (Greene  avenue  relief) 15  ft.  (I  in. 

Douglass  street  (Storm) 3  ft.  (!  in. 

Degraw  street  (Storm) 2  ft.  0  in. 

Sackett  street 1  ft.  <j  in. 

President  street 1  ft.  ti  in. 

Carroll  street 3  ft.  C  in. 

Carroll  street  (Belief) '. 4  ft.  0  in. 

Second  avenue  ( Storm ) (i  f  t.  (t  in. 

Nineteenth  street 3  ft.  0  i n. 

Hamilton  avenue 1  ft,  0  in. 

Hicks  street  slip 3  ft.  0  in. 

Into  Erie  Basin. 

Van  Brunt  street 2  ft.  0  in. 

Into  the  Upper  Buy. 

Forty-third  street  (Storm  sewer) 5  ft.  0  in. 

Forty-ninth  street  (Park  Slope  outlet)    10  ft,  0  in. 

Sixty-fourth  street  (Flatbush  outlet) 15  ft.  0  in. 

Into  the  Narroics. 

Seventy-first  street  ( Bay  Ridge) 4  ft.  0  in. 

Seventy-second  street  (Bay  Eidge) (5  ft.  0  in. 

Eighty-third  street 2  ft.  (i  in. 

Ninety-second  street  (Dyker  Heights  outlet) 11  ft.  0  in. 

Into  Gravescnd  Bay. 

Fifteenth  avenue 2  ft.  6  in. 

Twenty-second  avenue 2  ft.  0  in. 

Into  Tidal  Estuary  at  Benson  Avenue. 

And  Twenty-fifth  avenue,  4  sewers 1  ft.  (5  in. 

1  ft.  (5  in. 

2  ft.  0  in. 
1  ft.  0  in. 


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SEWERAGE   OF  BROOKLYN 
TABLE  V— Continued 


249 


Into  Coney  Island  Creek.  DIAMETER. 

Outlet  from  Coney  Island  Disposal  Plant 2  ft.     6  in. 

Outlet  from  Brighton  Beach  Disposal  Plant 2  ft.     0  in. 

Into  Shellbank  Creek. 

Outlet  from  Sheepshead  Bay  Disposal  Plant 2  ft.     0  in. 

Into  Jamaica  Bay. 

Flatbush  avenue 4  ft.     0  in. 

Outlet  from  Disposal  Plant  at  Van  Sicklen  and  Hendrix  avenues. . .   15  ft.     0  in. 

Into  Pacrdcgat  Creek  and  Basin. 

Thirty-seventh  street 6  ft.  0  in. 

East  Seventy-fourth  street  and  Avenue  J 3  ft.  0  in. 

Outlet  from  Screening  Plant  at  Flatlands  and  Paerdegat  avenues. . .   10  ft.  0  in. 

7  ft.  G  in. 

The  positions  of  the  larger  of  these  outlets,  as  well  as  the  courses  of  the  main  sewers 
leading  thereto  are  shown  on  map  facing  page  248. 

Growth  of  the  System.  The  growth  of  Brooklyn's  sewerage  system  since  1859,  as 
shown  by  the  number  of  house  connections  made,  and  since  1875  as  shown  by  the  num- 
ber of  miles  of  sewers  built  each  year  is  shown  in  Table  VI. 

TABLE    VI 
GROWTH  OF  THE  SEWER  SYSTEM  OF  BROOKLYN 


Year 

House  Connec- 
tions Made 

Total  House  Connec- 
tions to  Date 

Miles  of  Sewers 
Built 

Total  Miles  of 
Sewers  to  Date 

1859  

422 

422 

I860  

1  695 

2117 

1861  

4  896 

7  ni  o 

1862  

3  168 

in  ici 

1863  

1  984 

12  1AR 

1864  

1  301 

1  3  4fili 

1865  

1  519 

HnoK 

1866  

3  605 

10  con 

1867  

2  922 

21  512 

1868  

3  286 

24  798 

I860  

3  501 

28  299 

1870  

2  972 

31  271 

1871  

2  861 

34  139 

1872  

2  845 

3fi  Q77 

1873  

5276 

42  2I>3 

1874  

3  648 

45  901 

250 


DATA   COLLECTED 
TABLE  VI— Continued 


Year 

House  Connec- 
tions Made 

Total  House  Connec- 
tions to  Date 

Miles  of  Sewers 
Built* 

Total  Miles  of 
Sewers  to  Date* 

1875     

2,786 

48,687 

290  .  72 

1876                

2,237 

50,924 

6  64 

297  36 

1877     

2,110 

53,034 

3.49 

300.85 

1878                

1,999 

55,033 

62 

301  47 

1879     

1,908 

56,941 

.17 

301.64 

1880                   

1,664 

58,605 

2  08 

303  .  72 

1881     

1,872 

00,477 

2.31 

306.03 

1882                    

2,058 

62,535 

.76 

306.79 

1883     

2,626 

65,161 

3.03 

309.82 

1884            

3,079 

68,240 

5.47 

315.29 

1885     

3,162 

71,402 

13.96 

329.25 

1886            

3,093 

74,495 

14.23 

343  .  48 

1887  

3,295 

77,790 

11.74 

355.22 

1888     

3,302 

81,092 

16.91 

372.13 

1889                   

3,937 

85,029 

7.96 

380.09 

1890     

3,168 

88,195 

10.84 

390.93 

1891                

3,137 

91,334 

16.24 

407.17 

1892  

3,068 

94,402 

21.32 

428.49 

1893     

2,245 

96,647 

5.78 

434.29 

1894  

2,174 

98,821 

24.86 

459.13 

1895     

3,440 

102,261 

59.17 

518.30 

1896                   

3,696 

105,957 

18.60 

536.90 

1897                                      .    .           •       • 

3,300 

109,257 

62.48** 
11.09 

599.38** 
610.47 

1898     

2,562 

111,829 

6.20 

616.67 

1899                   .                      .... 

2,608 

114,437 

16.03 

633.30 

1900     

2,478 

116,917 

16.80 

650.10 

1901     

2,244 

119,159 

14.76 

664.86 

1902 

2,093 

121,242 

18.37 

683.23 

1903            .               

2,444 

123,686 

20.02 

703.30 

1904 

4,526 

128,212 

31.53 

734.83 

1905     

5,888 

134,100 

31.67 

766  50 

1906                                         .           

5,884 

139,984 

17.76 

784.26 

1907  

5,238 

145,222 

19.00 

803.32 

1908            

3,894 

149,116 

11.04 

814.36 

1909 

*  Note — There   may   be   some  small   errors   due   to  the  fact  that  the  actual  miles  built  and  net  miles  added,  i.  e.,  miles 
built  less  miles  abandoned,  are  not  always  clear;  e.  g.,  0.05  mi.  added  in  1903. 
**  Wards  29,  30,  31  added. 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  251 

Savers  and  Subway  Construction.  In  Brooklyn  the  construction  of  the  Rapid 
Transit  Subways  has  necessitated  several  important  changes  in  sewers  already  con- 
structed as  well  as  in  the  plans  for  projected  sewers.  Thf.  storm  relief  sewers  are  de- 
signed to  render  the  main  relief  sewer  system  adequate  and  to  rearrange  the  mains  so 
as  to  take  them  out  of  the  way  of  proposed  subway  construction. 

The  Public  Service  Commission  has  authority  to  change  the  existing  and  to 
build  new  sewers,  but  before  undertaking  any  changes  notification  must  be  given  to  the 
Bureau  of  Sewers,  upon  receipt  of  which  an  Inspector  will  be  detailed  to  make  an  ex- 
amination and  report  thereon.  Changes  can  only  be  made  with  the  approval  of  the 
Bureau,  and  under  the  inspection  of  the  Bureau's  representative. 

No  friction  results  from  this  arrangement,  the  co-operation  being  mutual  and 
harmonious.  Upon  completion,  the  new  or  altered  work  is  placed  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  maintenance  department  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers,  prior  to  which  time  all 
complaints  of  inadequacy  are  referred  to  the  Subway  Sewer  Department. 

RELIEF  SEWERS 

The  first  of  the  large  relief  sewers  to  be  constructed  was  the  Greene  avenue  re- 
lief sewer,  completed  in  1892  as  far  as  Marcy  avenue,  and  extended  in  later  years 
to  Halsey  street  and  Evergreen  avenue. 

Other  large  sewers  are  as  follows: 

South  Fifth  street  sewer,  extending  from  the  East  river  at  the  north  side  of  the 
Williamsburg  Bridge,  12  feet  in  diameter,  to  Union  avenue;  thence  on  Johnson  ave- 
nue, 12  feet  in  diameter,  to  Morgan  avenue,  where  it  is  joined  by  three  large  branches 
6  feet  6  inches,  4  feet  6  inches  and  11  feet  in  diameter,  draining  a  large  area  adjoin- 
the  Borough  of  Queens,  and  diverting,  through  the  Johnson  avenue  branch,  the  dry 
weather  flow  of  the  Scott  avenue  sewer  (Brooklyn-Queens  Interborough  sewer)  to  the 
East  river. 

The  Sixty-fourth  street  sewer,  15  feet  in  diameter,  from  the  Upper  bay  to  Third 
avenue ;  thence  on  Sixty-second  street,  14  feet  in  diameter,  to  Fort  Hamilton  avenue ; 
thence  13  feet  6  inches  on  Sixtieth  street  to  Fourteenth  avenue;  thence  13  feet  on 
Sixtieth  street  to  Nineteenth  avenue ;  thence  12  feet  on  Nineteenth  avenue  to  Fifty- 
third  street;  thence  on  Nineteenth  avenue  and  Foster  avenue,  11  feet  6  inches  in  diam- 
eter, to  Ocean  parkway;  thence  11  feet  to  Coney  Island  avenue;  thence  10  feet  to 
Flatbush  avenue ;  thence  on  Bedford  avenue,  reducing  from  9  feet  to  5  feet,  by  steps, 
at  Martense  street,  and  to  4  feet  at  Malbone  street.  This  sewer,  recently  completed,  af- 
fords an  outlet  for  the  Flatbush  sewage  to  the  Upper  bay.  A  storm  water  relief 
sewer  for  this  territory  will  be  required  in  the  not  far  distant  future. 


252  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  Ninety-second  street  sewer,  11  feet  in  diameter  from  the  Narrows,  on 
Ninety-second  street,  to  Fort  Hamilton  avenue;  10  feet  in  diameter,  to  Fourteenth 
avenue,  where  a  7-foot  6-inch  branch  extending  out  Bath  avenue,  and  an  8-foot 
6-inch  branch  extending  out  Fourteenth  avenue  afford  outlets  for  the  storm  water 
and  sewage  of  the  Bath  Beach,  Bensonhurst  and  Dyker  Heights  districts. 

Greene  Avenue  Relief  Sewer.  The  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer  was  intended  orig- 
inally to  afford  relief  from  flooding  in  a  territory  of  about  1,300  acres  lying  west  of 
the  ridge  of  the  terminal  moraine  and  south  of  Greene  avenue.  Starting  with  a 
diameter  of  15  feet  at  the  head  of  Gowanus  canal,  it  traverses  Sterling  place  to  Fourth 
avenue;  thence  to  Hanson  place  and  Raymond  street,  where  the  diameter  reduces  to 
14  feet.  From  Hanson  place  the  sewer  is  in  Greene  avenue,  maintaining  14  feet 
diameter  to  Grand  avenue,  where  it  reduces  to  12  feet,  and  to  Marcy  avenue,  where 
it  reduces  to  10  feet  10  inches  at  the  terminus  of  the  portion  first  built.  The  cost 
of  this  portion,  including  the  outlet  works  at  Gowanus  canal,  was  about  $1,000,000. 
The  sewer  was  subsequently  extended,  10  feet  8  inches  in  diameter,  to  Patchen  ave- 
nue, then  6  feet  6  inches  to  Bushwick  avenue,  then  on  Bushwick  to  Weirfield  and 
on  Evergreen  to  Halsey.  A  7-foot  6-inch  branch  was  also  extended  on  Patchen  to 
Hancock,  branching  there  into  6-foot  6-inch  and  4-foot  6-inch  drains  to  relieve  districts 
near  Broadway  and  Fulton  street,  respectively. 

The  extension  of  the  main  sewer  to  give  relief  to  additional  territory  greatly  over- 
taxed its  capacity,  and  produced  floods  and  damage  at  many  points. 

Additional  Relief  Sewers.  In  1904,  owing  to  the  past  inconveniences  from  sewer 
floods,  Mr.  John  C.  Breckenridge,  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  was  directed  to 
devise  a  plan  to  end  the  causes  of  the  complaints,  and  Mr.  H.  E.  Asserson,  the  Chief 
Engineer  of  the  Bureau,  laid  out  a  scheme  for  relieving  the  various  districts  on  the 
following  general  plan : 

1.  The  admission  of  one-half  of  the  rainfall,  of  the  district  to  be  relieved,  into 
new  sewers. 

2.  The  prevention,  by  means  of  intercepting  sewers,  of  the  entrance  of  storm 
waters  into  valleys  of  depression. 

3.  The  construction  of  sewer  outfalls  at  high  enough  elevations  not  to  be  ob- 
structed during  high  tides. 

Division  No.  1  Relief  Sewers.  The  sewers  first  recommended  for  construction 
were  what  are  known  as  Divisions  Nos.  1  and  2,  of  the  main  line  relief  sewers.  Di- 
vision No.  1  included  a  sewer  having  its  outlet  into  the  Wallabout  canal  at  Classon 
avenue,  and  extending  15  feet  6  inches  in  diameter  in  Classon  avenue,  to  Park  avenue, 
in  Park  avenue  to  Skillman  street,  in  Skill  man  street  to  Myrtle  avenue,  and  in  Myrtle 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  253 

avenue  to  a  point  east  of  Bedford  avenue.  From  this  point  it  extended  15  feet  in 
diameter  in  Myrtle  avenue,  to  Nostrand  avenue,  in  Nostrand  avenue  to  Vernou  avenue, 
in  Vernon  avenue  to  Tom  pkins  avenue,  and  in  Tompkins  avenue,  from  Vernon  to  Greene 
avenue,  where  it  connects  with  the  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer,  which  at  that  place  is  10 
feet  in  diameter.  This  sewer  will  divert  practically  Hie  entire  storm  water  flow  from  the 
old  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer,  and  discharge  it  into  the  Wallabout  baj';  it  has  not 
yet  been  built. 

Division  No.  2,  Relief  Sewers.  Division  No.  2  comprises  a  relief  sewer  having 
an  outlet  in  the  East  river  at  the  foot  of  Gold  street,  and  extending  in  Gold  street 
14  feet,  to  12  feet  (5  inches  in  diameter  from  the  outlet  to  Johnson  street,  and  in 
Johnson  street,  from  Gold  street  to  Hudson  avenue;  thence  12  feet  in  diameter  in 
Johnson  street,  from  Hudson  avenue  to  Raymond  street;  from  Raymond  street  to 
DeKalb  avenue,  and  in  DeKalb  avenue,  from  Raymond  street  to  South  Portland  ave- 
nue. From  here  it  extends  11  feet  G  inches  in  diameter,  in  South  Portland  avenue 
from  DeKalb  avenue  to  Hanson  place.  This  sewer  diverts  the  entire  storm  flow  as 
well  as  the  dry  weather  flow  from  the  Greene  avenue  relief  sewer,  thus  discharg- 
ing the  house  sewage,  which  formerly  emptied  into  Gowanus  canal,  into  the  deep 
water  of  East  river  at  the  foot  of  Gold  street.  A  48  to  54-inch  branch  extends  to 
Myrtle  avenue,  from  Carlton  avenue  to  Raymond  street. 

Relief  sewers  estimated  to  cost  |7,500,000  were  planned  at  that  time,  and  the 
Board  of  Estimate  was  requested  to  appropriate  $2,000,000  to  start  the  work.  This 
appropriation  was  granted  in  July,  1905,  and  the  Gold  street  sewer,  with  a 
capacity  of  about  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  providing  relief  for  a  drainage  area 
of  about  1,033  acres,  has  been  completed.  Division  No.  1,  which  provided  for  relief 
for  an  area  of  3.7  square  miles  of  drainage  area,  has  not  been  completed,  owing  to 
the  withholding  by  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  of  a  portion  of  the 
money  originally  authorized  for  the  work. 

With  the  completion  of  these  two  relief  sewers  and  their  branches,  it  is  felt  by 
the  Bureau  of  Sewfers  that  the  territory  penetrated  will  be  properly  protected 
against  further  damage  from  sewer  floods. 

In  this  connection,  it  may  be  well  to  mention  the  tunnel  now  under  construc- 
tion for  the  relief  of  the  objectionable  condition  of  Gowanus  canal. 

Gowanus  Canal.  Gowanus  canal  is  a  tidal  estuary  of  the  Upper  bay,  and  lies 
in  a  north  and  south  direction  parallel  with  Buttermilk  channel,  and  about  one  mile 
to  the  east,  its  upper  limit  being  about  12,000  feet  north  of  the  breakwater  at  Erie 
basin.  The  canal  is  a  dredged  creek  channel;  it  is  in  general  about  12  feet  deep  and 
100  feet  wide,  and  has  several  dredged  basins  and  arms  connecting  wtith  it  that 


254  DATA   COLLECTED 

serve  buildings  not  on  the  line  with  the  main  canal.  It  affords  dock  facilities  for 
manufacturing  establishments  and  warehouses  in  the  part  of  the  city  that  it  trav- 
erses, and  in  annual  tonnage  ranks  high  among  the  waterways  of  the  country. 
There  being  no  definite  movement  of  water  in  the  canal,  other  than  that  caused 
by  tides,  the  condition  has  been  for  many  years  unsanitary,  and  offensive  odors 
therefrom  have  been  complained  of  for  many  blocks  away  from  the  canal. 

Qowanus  Flushing  Tunnel.  The  conditions  have  gradually  been  getting  worse, 
until  finally  it  became  necessary  to  provide  relief.  The  plan  adopted  and  now  in 
course  of  execution,  is.  the  construction  of  a  tunnel  leading  from  the  head  of  the 
canal  under  Degraw  street,  to  an  outlet  in  Buttermilk  channel  in  the  Upper  bay,  and 
providing  for  a  circulation  of  water  in  the  canal  and  through  the  tunnel.  It  is 
planned  to  establish  a  pumping  station  and  pump  the  water  out  of  the  canal  into 
the  tunnel,  whence  it  will  escape  to  Buttermilk  channel,  0,270  feet  away. 

The  tunnel  is  now  (1910)  completed,  and  plans  have  been  prepared  for  the  pump- 
ing station  and  pumping  machinery.  Its  course  is  west  in  Butler  street  for  a  thousand 
feet  to  Hoyt  street,  south  500  feet  in  Hoyt  street  to  Degraw  street,  and  west  4,770  feet 
in  Degraw  street  to  the  outlet.  The  tunnel  is  circular,  with  an  inside  diameter  of 
12  feet  built  of  four  rings  of  brickwork  of  a  total  thickness  of  1C  inches.  The  in- 
vert is  at  an  elevation  IS1/*  feet  below  mean  high  water;  this  will  bring  the  top 
6%  feet  below  at  the  outlet.  The  pumping  plant  is  to  consist  of  a  9-foot  propeller 
type  of  pump  driven  by  a  400  horsepower  motor.  The  water  of  the  canal  will  flow 
to  the  pump,  so  that  there  will  be  no  lift  required  further  than  that  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  friction  head  in  the  tunnel  which  is  estimated  to  be  S1/^  feet.  Con- 
tracts have  been  let  for  the  machinery,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  plant  will  be  put 
in  operation  during  the  summer  of  1910. 

It  was  originally  intended  to  pump  from  the  river  into  the  canal,  but  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons  it  was  concluded  better  to  pump  in  the  reverse  direction : 

1.  The  principal  sources  of  pollution  being  at  the  head  of  the  canal,  pumping 
river  water  therein  would  tend  to  drive  these  polluted  waters  out  of  the  canal  with 
the  deposition  of  suspended  matter  upon  the  bottom  of  the  canal  all  the  way  to  its 
mouth.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  water  is  pumped  from  the  canal,  the  polluted  waters 
will  be  forced  out  of  the  tunnel  to  the  river  direct  at  a  good  velocity,  and  cleaner  water 
will  enter  the  canal  at  its  mouth  to  replace  that  which  is  pumped  out  at  the  head. 

2.  Loaded  boats  travel,  as  a  rule,  toward  the  head  of  the  canal  and  go  back 
empty.     A  current  created   in  the  canal   toward   its   head  would   materially  assist 
traffic,  whereas  a  current  in  the  reverse  direction  would  be  a  disadvantage. 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  255 

3.  The   top  of   the   tunnel   being  submerged  only  2  feet  at  low  tide  at  the  river 
end,  and  the  hydraulic  slope  of  the  water  in   the  tunnel  to  the  pump  being  31/2  t° 
3%  feet,  the  top  of  the  pump  would  very  likely  be  exposed  at  low  tide  and  its  effi- 
ciency reduced  thereby.     With  a  current  from  the  canal  to  the  river  through  the  tun- 
nel, this  would  not  be  the  case. 

4.  The  tunnel  could  be  used  hereafter  as  an  outlet  for  sewers  if  it  discharges  into 
the  river.     It  could  not  be  so  used  if  it  discharged  into>  the  canal. 

Third  Avenue  Relief  Sewer.  A  small  relief  sewer  was  constructed  in  Carroll 
street  for  the  relief  of  the  Third  avenue  main  sewer.  This  is  one  block  in  length  and 
48  inches  in  diameter. 

Brooklyn-Queens  Interborouyh  Sewer.  Among  the  important  sewers  recently 
constructed  is  the  sewer  in  Scott  avenue  called  the  Brooklyn  and  Queens  interborough 
sewer.  This  sewer  provides  an  outlet  for  a  large  drainage  area  of  several  thousand 
acres,  the  greater  part  of  which  lies  in  the  Borough  of  Queens.  It  is  arranged  so  that 
the  dry  weather  flow,  or  house  sewage,  will  be  diverted  to  the  sewer  on  Johnson 
avenue,  which  empties  into  the  sewer  discharging  into  the  East  river  at  the  foot  of 
South  Fifth  street.  A  storm  water  overflow  is  provided  in  Scott  avenue,  15  feet  6 
inches  in  diameter,  discharging  into  the  head  of  Newtown  creek.  Although  not  the 
largest  sewer  in  the  borough  its  capacity  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  owing  to 
the  steep  grades.  The  velocities  of  flow  would  have  been  so  great  if  the  sewer  had 
taken  the  natural  slope  of  the  ground  south  of  Flushing  avenue,  that  it  was 
necessary  to  put  in  drop-manholes  in  order  to  prevent  the  rapid  wear  of  the  masonry 
and  possible  damage  to  the  sewer  and  adjacent  property.  The  outlet  at  Newtown  creek 
and  Metropolitan  avenue  has  been  made  broad  so  that  the  current  will  not  be  great 
enough  to  prevent  boats  from  lying  at  the  bulkheads  when  the  sewer  is  discharging 
at  its  maximum  rate. 

Wallabout  Channel  Relief  Sewer,  Other  relief  sewers  are  planned  and  it  is  ex- 
pected will  be  put  into  execution  in  the  near  future.  Among  these  is  one  planned  to  oc- 
cupy Flushing  avenue  and  to  provide  for  the  abandonment  of  the  three  sewers  now 
discharging  through  the  United  States  Navy  Yard  into  the  Wallabout  channel. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  SYSTEM 

Inspection.  The  sewers  of  Brooklyn  are  not  inspected,  except  as  to  catch  basins, 
unless  in  response  to  filed  complaints. 

As  in  Manhattan,  steam  exhaust  pipes  are  commonly  connected  to  the  sewers  in 
the  business  parts  of  the  city,  and  although  against  the  law,  efforts  to  have  them  dis- 
connected have  failed, 


256  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  cleaning  force  is  adequate  to  take  care  of  all  the  small  sewers,  but  more  men 
are  needed  to  properly  care  for  the  larger  ones. 

In  1907  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  sewers  was  made  and  the  amount  of  deposits 
determined.  These  were  not  in  all  cases  as  great  as  had  been  anticipated,  although  in 
several  localities  they  were  great  enough  seriously  to  reduce  the  capacity  of  the  sewers. 

Designs  have  been  perfected  for  sewer  cleaning  machines  consisting  of  steel  trav- 
eling derricks  with  gasoline  engines  and  other  appurtenances  to  remove,  at  one  oper- 
ation, deposited  material  and  load  it  in  carts  for  disposal.  A  careful  record  of  costs 
of  all  operations  is  kept. 

Basin  Cleaning.  In  1907,  42,327  basins  were  examined  and  24,389  cleaned.  This 
would  indicate  an  average  cleaning  of  each  of  the  9,979  basins  about  2y2  times  each 
year,  with  an  inspection  about  4  times  each  year.  The  basins  in  the  closely  built  up 
and  business  sections  receive  attention  much  more  frequently  than  those  in  the  out- 
lying districts. 

The  appropriation  for  the  payment  of  wages  of  men  and  purchase  of  the  necessary 
equipment  for  cleaning  sewers  of  such  faulty  design  that  they  require  periodical  clean- 
ing to  keep  them  in  operation  was  $55,000  for  the  year  1908. 

Washing  of  Street  Sweepings  into  Basins.  The  men  of  the  Street  Cleaning  De- 
partment wash  some  of  the  paved  streets  in  certain  sections  of  the  city  and  during 
this  operation  much  detritus  is  carried  into  the  catch  basins.  The  custom  of  pushing 
street  sweepings  into  the  basins  appears  to  be  quite  general ;  and,  in  fact,  the  basins 
seem  to  be  popularly  considered  proper  receptacles  for  anything  that  will  enter  the 
opening,  including  snow  in  winter.  The  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  for  1907  states 
that  9,674  basins  were  cleaned  of  snow.  Although  there  is  an  ordinance  against  put- 
ting snow  and  street  sweepings  into  the  basins,  the  magistrates  have  invariably  dis- 
missed the  cases  when  the  street  cleaners  have  been  arrested  on  complaints  of  the 
Bureau  of  Sewers  for  violation  of  the  ordinances. 

Disposal  of  Basin  Deposits.  The  deposits  removed  from  the  catch  basins  and  sew- 
ers are  carted  to  public  dumps  located  in  sections  remote  from  habitations.  In  1907 
the  deposits  removed  from  basins  aggregated  35,272  cubic  yards,  at  an  average  cost 
of  |1.63  per  basin  or  $1.12  per  cubic  yard. 

Store  Yards.  The  Maintenance  Department  has  been  much  inconvenienced  in  the 
past  by  lack  of  proper  and  conveniently  located  store  yards.  At  present  the  only  yards 
are  the  one  at  North  Portland  avenue,  50  feet  by  100  feet,  and  the  grounds  around  the 
disposal  plants,  miles  away  from  the  places  where  supplies  are  most  frequently  and 
most  urgently  needed.  Recommendations  have  annually  been  made  by  the  Superinten- 
dent of  Sewers,  that  steps  should  be  taken  to  secure  properly  located  yards  so  that 


Example  of  a  Sewer  Outlet  in  Jersey  City 


M 


Bewer  Discharging  into  Gowamis  C'anal.     Conditions  in  this  canal  have 

offensive  that  works  have  been  constructed  to 
pump  out  the  water  as  the  only  means  of  relief 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  257 

adequate  equipment  could  be  provided  and  a  suitable  force  of  men  be  employed  to 
clean  the  basins  and  sewers  and  property  attend  to  the  general  work  of  the  system. 
At  present  much  time  is  lost  going  back  and  forth  after  supplies  and  tools. 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

The  sewage  of  the  territory  draining  to  Newtown  creek,  the  East  river,  Gowanus 
canal,  Upper  bay  and  the  Narrows  is  discharged  into  these  waters  without  treatment, 
dependence  being  placed  on  dilution  to  render  the  sewage  inoffensive  and  inodorous. 

The  sewage  of  the  territory  draining  towards  Jamaica  bay  and  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board is,  for  the  most  part,  conducted  to  plants  intended  for  its  purification. 

TIDAL  DISCHARGE 

The  disposal  into  tide  water,  at  certain  points,  has  been  attended  by  the  creation 
of  offensive  conditions  owing  to  the  relatively  great  quantity  of  sewage  as  compared 
with  the  flow  of  water  into  which  it  is  discharged.  In  some  cases  no  ill  effects  have 
been  apparent.  The  worst  conditions  are  to  be  found  in  Newtown  creek,  Wallabout 
channel,  Gowanus  canal  and  bay,  Coney  Island  creek  and  the  Paerdegat  basin.  All 
these  are  tidal  estuaries,  or  artificially  dredged  channels  in  which  the  movement  of 
water  is  only  that  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides.  There  is  no  circulation. 

Newtown  Creek.  The  condition  of  Newtown  creek  needs  no  minute  description. 
The  creek  penetrates  important  manufacturing  districts  of  both  Brooklyn  and  Long 
Island  City,  and  is  lined  on  both  banks  with  warehouses,  elevators  and  factories  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  Its  importance  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  the  tonnage  of  the  traffic  on  its  sur- 
face is  greater  annually  than  that  of  any  other  single  tidal  estuary  of  equal  length  in 
this  country.  Into  it  is  discharged  a  considerable  quantity  of  manufacturing  wastes 
and  the  flow  of  a  few  sewers.  Further  discharge  of  sewage  into  it  is  prohibted  by 
law.  But  in  spite  of  this  legal  restriction  is  is  to-day  in  a  very  objectionable  condition. 

The  outlet  of  the  15-foot  Brooklyn-Queens  interborough  sewer  into  the  head  of  the 
creek  at  Scott  avenue  is  for  storm  water  only,  the  dry  weather  flow  of  this  sewer  being 
diverted  into  the  Johnson  avenue  sewer  which  discharges  into  the  East  river  at  the  north 
side  of  the  Williamsburg  Bridge  in  South  Fifth  street. 

Wallabout  Bay.  The  condition  of  Wallabout  bay  and  channel,  particularly  where 
the  9-foot  Kent  avenue  sewer  empties  into  it,  is  exceedingly  offensive  at  all  stages  of 
tide,  the  bottom  of  the  channel  being  covered  with  putrefying  sewage  sludge  and 
ill-smelling  sewage. 

The  objectionable  conditions  in  Wallabout  bay,  in  front  of  the  Navy  Yard,  will  to 
some  extent  be  remedied  by  the  interception  of  the  flow  of  three  sewers  now  discharging 


258  DATA   COLLECTED 

therein  and  its  conveyance  into  the  swift  current  of  the  East  river  at  a  favorable  point  of 
outfall.  The  work  is  not  yet  authorized,  although  the  plans  are  completed.  As  soon 
as  the  details  of  the  apportionment  of  the  cost  as  between  the  borough  and  the 
United  States  Government  can  be  agreed  upon,  authorization  may  be  expected. 

Goicanus  Canal.  The  condition  of  Gowanus  canal,  into  Avhich  the  15-foot  Greene 
avenue  relief  sewer,  as  well  as  some  eight  other  sewers  ranging  from  1  foot  6  inches 
to  6  feet  6  inches  in  diameter  discharge  has  been  for  some  years  very  offensive.  The 
water  is  black  and  foul  smelling  at  all  times,  and  the  sides  of  the  piers,  bulkheads  and 
masonry  structures  are  darkly  discolored. 

Coney  Island  Creek.  Coney  Island  creek  receives  the  effluents  of  the  sewage  puri- 
fication plants  back  of  Luna  Park  and  Manhattan  Beach,  and  the  effects  of  the  sewage 
pollution  of  the  water  are  decidedly  evident. 

Paerdegat  Creek.  Paerdegat  creek  receives  the  raw  sewage  from  an  area  of  4,700 
acres  in  the  Flatbush  district  through  four  large  sewers;  one  10-foot  sewer  from  Flat- 
lands  avenue;  one  7-foot  6-inch  sewer  from  Avenue  F;  one  3-foot  sewer  known  as  the 
old  Kings  County  sewer;  and  one  6-foot  sewer  at  Thirty-seventh  street  and  Avenue  E. 
The  water  of  the  creek  is  turbid  and  discolored  and  sewage  particles  can  be  seen  at  all 
times  floating  about  in  the  water;  the  creek  is  in  fact  an  open  sewer  winding  about 
through  a  narrow  channel  between  low  meadow  banks  for  a  mile  and  a  half  t<> 
discharge  into  Jamaica  bay  at  a  point  about  half  way  between  Canarsie  and  Bergen 
Beach. 

Inspections  made  at  the  mouth  of  Paerdegat  creek  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
Commission  during  the  summer  of  1909  showed  that  sewage  from  the  creek  sometimes 
flowed  in  a  visible  stream  immediately  past  Bergen  Beach.  Extensive  oyster  beds  lie 
in  this  vicinity. 

Effect  on  Shell  Fisheries.  Canarsie  is  one  of  the  principal  oyster  depots  in  Ja- 
maica bay.  It  is  said  that  Jamaica  bay  produces  annually  not  far  from  600,000  bushels 
of  oysters.  A  large  business  is  done  at  Canarsie  in  preparing  for  market  oysters  sold 
in  shell  and  in  bulk.  The  oysters  are  dredged  from  the  bay,  where  they  have  been 
planted  and  allowed  to  grow  to  marketable  size.  On  arrival  at  the  Canarsie  depot  they 
are  taken  into  shanties  which  line  both  sides  of  a  small  creek  to  the  south  of  the  settled 
part  of  the  town.  Here  the  oysters  are  sorted,  counted  and  put  into  barrels  for  the 
half-shell  trade  or  opened  and  packed  into  tubs  if  to  be  shipped  in  bulk.  It  appears 
that  no  oysters  are  drinked  in  shell  here  at  the  present  time,  although  those  which  are 
shipped  in  bulk  are  immersed  in  land  water  after  they  are  opened  and  before  they  are 
put  into  the  receptacles  for  transportation.  This  immersion  causes  the  meat  to  swell 
and  the  oysters  to  look  fat. 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  259 

Pollution  of  Harbor  Waters.  From  all  the  large  sewer  outlets  along  the  water 
frontage  of  Brooklyn  the  sewage  discharged  can  be  noted  by  the  discoloration  of  the 
water,  by  solid  masses  of  feces  and  by  the  grease  on  the  surface,  over  extensive  areas. 
In  some  cases  this  can  hardly  be  called  very  offensive,  though  not  pleasant  to  contem- 
plate, but  in  others  i!  is  both  offensive  and  a  menace  to  health. 

Flood  tide  currents  prevent  the  sewage  from  flowing  out  freely  and  becoming 
dispersed.  As  a  consequence,  at  some  of  the  ferry  slips,  notably  at  Fulton  Ferry,  the 
sewage  accumulates  to  such  an  extent  that  the  water  appears  to  be  all  sewage. 

Some  of  the  outlets  are  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  bathing  beaches  and  pub- 
lic floating  bathing  establishments.  At  Fort  Hamilton  the  Ninety-second  street  outlet 
sewer  for  the  Dyker  Heights  district  is  carried  out  a  long  distance  from  the  shore,  the 
top  of  the  sewer  being  above  high  tide  from  the  shore  to  its  mouth.  The  sewage  dis- 
charged therefrom  is  consequently  carried  behind  the  obstruction  formed  by  the  outlet 
as  the  water  flows  into  and  out  of  the  harbor.  Bathers  are  frequently  observed  swim- 
ming in  the  water  at  this  place  surrounded  with  visible  particles  of  sewage.  The 
same  is  true  of  Gravesend  bay,  of  Bath  Beach  and  U liner  Park,  the  conditions  being 
unsanitary  and  dangerous. 

On  the  beach  at  Norton's  Point,  near  Sea  Gate,  large  quantities  of  driftwood,  gar- 
bage and  other  floating  matter  collect;  these  are  disposed  of  by  burning  on  days  when 
the  wind  blows  from  the  east. 

Pollution  of  JaiiKiica  Hay.  In  Jamaica  bay  the  outlet  of  one  of  the  larger  Arverne 
sewers  is  upon  the  sloping  beach  about  half  way  between  high  and  low  tide.  Men  and 
boys  dig  in  the  slimy  mud  in  front  of  this  sewer  for  soft  clams.  A  little  further  out, 
in  the  direct  line  of  the  discharge  of  the  canal  carrying  the  Arverne  sewage,  is  a  favorite 
place  for  clamming  with  tongs.  On  both  sides  of  the  causeway  at  Rockaway,  and  on 
both  banks,  can  be  seen  stakes  indicating  oyster  beds.  Shellfish  from  these  places  are 
dangerous  to  eat  or  handle. 

SEWAGE   PURIFICATION   PLANTS 

In  Brooklyn  thorv  are  four  sewage  purification  plants  in  operation,  as  follows: 


Plant 

Location 

Put  in  service 

Caisson  No  2  

Back  of  Luna  Park,  Coney  Island  

May,  1886 

October    1887 

1899 

26th  Ward  Plant  

South  of  East  New  York  

May,  1897 

260  DATA   COLLECTED 

Coney  Island  Plants.  Caissons  No.  2,  No.  3  and  No.  4  receive  the  sewage  from 
an  area  of  1,215  acres,  with  an  average  population  of  about  11,000  and  a  transient 
summer  population  averaging  about  350,000.  The  quantity  of  sewage  treated  at  Cais- 
sons No.  2  and  No.  3  averages  about  2,500,000  gallons  daily,  1,800,000  gallons  at  the 
Coney  Island,  and  700,000  gallons  daily  at  the  Manhattan  Beach  plant.  Caisson  No. 
4  receives  the  sewage  from  Sheepshead  bay,  averaging  about  1,750,000  gallons  daily. 
These  three  plants  are  operated  as  a  unit  and  the  costs  of  purification  at  each  can 
not  be  separately  ascertained  from  the  reports  of  the  Bufreau.  The  works  were 
built  under  the  patents  of  J.  J.  Powers.  The  sewage  is  treated  with  lime  to  hasten  the 
subsidence  of  the  suspended  matters  in  settling  tanks.  Chlorine  gas,  manufactured 
from  sulphuric  acid,  oxide  of  manganese  and  salt,  is  supposed  to  be  used  to  disinfect  the 
sludge  removed  from  the  settling  tanks.  The  effluents  from  the  two  Coney  Island 
plants  are  discharged  through  the  same  pipe  into  Coney  Island  creek.  The  cost  of 
operating  these  three  plants  in  1907  was  about  |26,000. 

The  process  is  not  efficient,  and  numerous  complaints  have  been  made  of  offen- 
sive odors  arising  from  the  discharge  into  the  creek  of  the  ill-smelling  effluents,  par- 
ticularly at  low  tide  and  when  the  atmosphere  was  humid. 

Eegular  analyses  have  not  been  made  of  the  sewage  at  these  plants.  A  report 
by  D.  D.  Jackson,  on  samples  taken  during  the  week  ending  December  21,  1907,  is 
as  follows: 

"  The  study  of  the  results  is  somewhat  complicated  because  of  the 
amount  of  sea  water  mixed  with  the  sewage.  As  salt  water  is  used  in  the 
high  pressure  system  only  in  case  of  emergency,  the  introduction  of  sea  water 
into  the  sewage  must  be  direct.  Samples  taken  on  the  15th  and  the  raw  sewage 
on  the  16th  are  very  high  in  chlorine,  probably  as  a  result  of  the  high  tide 
following  the  severe  storm  on  the  14th.  The  chlorine  for  the  remainder  of 
the  samples  is  still  too  high,  and  not  explained  by  the  amount  of  chlorine 
in  the  water  supply  of  this  section.  Two  stations,  New  Utrecht  Pumping  Sta- 
tion and  the  Gravesend  Pumping  Station,  supply  the  water  for  this  district, 
and  this  water  is  also  somewhat  mixed  with  water  from  Kidgewood  reservoirs. 
Probably  100  parts  per  million  is  the  greatest  amount  of  chlorine  which  could 
be  obtained  from  the  water  supply  and  the  sewage.  The  remainder  must 
come  from  sea  water.  The  amount  of  nitrates  present  is  also  low  in  the  first 
three  samples,  due  to  dilution  with  sea  water,  and  the  nitrates  in  the  rest  of 
the  samples  come  from  the  water  supply. 

The  appearance  of  some  of  the  treated  samples  indicated  that  putresci- 
bility  had  set  in  during  treatment.  The  bacteria  were  somewhat  reduced  in 
number,  and  the  intestinal  germs  in  about  the  same  proportion.  The  inspec- 
tion of  the  plant  indicated  that  the  chlorine  generators  had  probably  not 
been  used  for  months.  The  amount  of  sea  water  present  in  the  sewage  ren- 
ders it  impossible  to  tell  from  the  analyses  whether  this  is  so. 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  261 

The  turbidity  is  sometimes  considerably  higher  in  the  treated  sewage  than 
in  the  raw  sewage,  indicating  that  the  sedimentation  basins  are  quite  inef- 
fective." 

East  New  York  Plant.  The  26th  Ward  plant,  like  the  two  at  Coney  Island, 
was  built  under  the  Powers  patents.  This  plant  receives  a  larger  amount  of  sewage 
than  any  other  in  the  metropolitan  district.  The  territory  tributary  is  at  present 
3,200  acres,  supporting  a  population  of  about  100,000,  contributing  in  1907  some 
12,000,000  gallons  of  sewage  daily.  The  cost  of  operation  for  that  year  was  $32,000 ; 
its  cost  of  construction  was  $309,000,  of  which  |255,000  represents  the  cost  of  the 
building. 

The  building  containing  the  works  is  circular  in  plan,  and  has  a  diameter  of 
140  feet.  As  the  sewage  enters,  it  passes  through  coarse  hand-cleaned  screens  and 
then  enters  one  of  the  two  semi-circular  sets  of  sedimentation  tanks,  each  tank  hav- 
ing a  width  of  16  feet  and  a  depth  of  7  feet.  The  sewage  traverses  a  distance  of  350 
feet  before  reaching  the  collecting  well  at  the  center  of  the  building.  The  collect- 
ing well  is  40  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  bottom  is  16  feet  below  mean  high  tide. 
At  present  it  is  necessary  to  keep  both  sets  of  chambers  in  use,  and  the  sewage  oc- 
cupies less  than  an  hour  in  passing  through  the  plant.  From  the  collecting  w<ell 
pumps  lift  the  sewage  about  14  feet  and  discharge  it  into  an  open  channel  leading  to 
Jamaica  bay,  a  distance  of  3,800  feet.  Chlorine  is  used  as  a  disinfectant  before 
cleaning  out  the  sludge,  the  chlorine  being  generated  by  the  use  of  a  mixture  of  108 
pounds  of  sulphuric  acid,  64  pounds  of  common  salt  and  48  pounds  of  manganese 
dioxide.  An  aqueous  solution  of  the  salt  and  manganes-e  is  first  obtained  and  the 
nc-id  is  then  added.  The  chlorine  is  discharged  at  about  two  pounds  pressure.  The 
sludge  is  discharged  upon  the  meadows  in  the  vicinity  of  the  plant.  The  lime  used 
in  purifying  the  sewage  is  used  at  a  rate  of  one  barrel  for  200,000  gallons  of  sewage, 
and  is  introduced  in  the  form  of  milk  of  lime,  after  slacking  and  cooling,  at  the 
point  where  the  sewage  enters  the  plant.  The  working  force  consists  of  an  engineer 
in  charge,  three  assistant  engineers,  three  stokers  and  sixteen  unskilled  laborers. 

The  Coney  Island,  Manhattan  Beach  and  Sheepshead  Bay  plants  are  so  similar 
to  the  26th  Ward  plant  that  the  description  of  this  will  serve  for  all  the  plants. 

At  the  four  disposal  plants  there  were  used,  in  1907,  for  disinfectants,  7  tons 
sulphuric  acid,  3  tons  oxide  of  manganese,  4  tons  of  salt;  and  for  precipitants,  3.3 
tons  perchloride  of  iron  and  5,728  barrels  of  lime.  The  total  quantity  of  sewage 
treated  was  5,000,000,000  gallons,  from  which  4,500,000  cubic  feet  of  liquid  sludge 
was  produced,  or  nearly  1  cubic  foot  of  sludge  per  1,000  gallons  of  sewage. 


-'«;::  DATA   COLLECTKD 

Tlie  sewage,  appears  to  be  but  little  improved  by  passiug  through  the  works. 
The  effluent  is  usually  turbid,  and  solid  particles  which  have  escaped  removal  may 
be  seen  on  the  surface  and  through  the  stream. 

Quality  of  effluent.  Concerning  the  character  of  the  effluent  from  the  26th  Ward 
plant,  an  examination  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  1007  shows  that  it  was  tur- 
bid, contained  considerable  sediment,  and  showed  evidences  of  putrescibility  in  less 
than  thirty  hours. 

Commenting  on  the  analyses  of  the  effluent  from  the  plant  as  shown  by  his 
analyses  in  1907,  D.  D.  Jackson,  chemist,  says :  "  These  results  show  that  the  sewage 
is  strong  in  character  and  contains  a  large  amount  of  fate  and  other  organic  mat- 
ters. The  process  of  purification  has  not  materially  reduced  either  the  suspended 
matters  or  matters  in  solution.  The  presence  of  hypochlorite  (a  disinfecting 
agent)  in  the  effluent,  considerably  delays  the  putrescibility.  The  effluent  is,  how- 
ever, putrescibile  at  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours." 

The  outfall  flume  passes  through  meadow  lands  for  its  entire  distance,  and  at  au 
elevation  insufficient  to  prevent  the  sewage  from  flooding  the  neighboring  meadows 
during  high  tides. 

Inspections  of  the  outfall  of  the  26th  Ward  plant  by  the  Commission  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1909  showed  that  the  sewage  passed  in  a  stream  along  the  shores  of  Jamaica 
bay  in  either  direction,  according  to  the  tidal  currents,  and  has  been  found  to  travel 
as  far  as  Canarsie  on  the  one  hand  and  Old  Mill  creek  on  the  other,  a  distance  of 
somewhat  more  than  one  mile.  Extensive  natural  growths  of  soft  clams  occur  and 
are  gathered  in  this  territory  throughout  the  year.  They  are  polluted. 

PLANS  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  SEWERS  FOR  THE  FUTURE 

Kealizing  the  inefficiency  of  the  existing  sewage  disposal  plants,  the  Chief  Engi- 
neer of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  reported  to  the  Superintendent  of  Sewers,  under  date  of 
January  28th,  1908,  as  follows : 

"Beyond  any  doubt  or  question,  the  remodeling  of  these  two  plants  (Coney  Isl- 
and and  26th  Ward)  should  be  undertaken  without  more  delay,  the  former  because 
otherwise  the  greatly  increased  flow  of  sewage  which  will  reach  this  plant  upon  the 
completion  of  sewers  now  under  way  will  create  a  nuisance  in  the  heart  of  one  of  the 
greatest  pleasure  resorts  in  the  world;  the  latter  because  the  present  plant  (which  is  at 
best  only  a  makeshift  and  a  pretense),  designed  to  treat  3,000,000  gallons  per  day,  is 
now  receiving  in  the  neighborhood  of  10,000,000  gallons  per  day,  with  the  result  that 
the  sewage  flows  away  from  the  plant  in  fully  as  foul  a  condition  as  it  reaches  it,  the 


SEWERAGE  OF  BROOKLYN  263 

only  effect  of  the  treatment  it  receives  being  that  the  effluent  contains  a  quantity  of 
lime,  and  putrefactive  action  is  delayed  several  hours. 

"  Sewers  are  now  authorized  and  will  be,  placed  under  contract  during  the  coming 
season,  which,  together  with  the  increase  i;i  population  of  the  district  now  tributary 
to  the  plant,  will  eventually  double  the  flow.  The  effect  of  this  large  discharge  of 
practically  untreated  sewage  would  be  to  pollute  the  shores  and  shore  waters  for  at 
least  a  mile  in  either  direction  from  the  outlet  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  number  of 
pleasure  resorts,  numerous  oyster  beds  and  in  front  of  rapidly  developing  property." 

In  furtherance  of  the  plan  to  replace  these  two  with  modern  plants,  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Sewers  and  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Bureau  visited  the  principal  sewerage 
works  at  home  and  abroad,  and  subsequently  formulated  a  general  program  with  re- 
spect to  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  the  borough.  This  is  as  follows : 

1.  In  that  part  of  the  borough  now  draining  to  East  river,  Upper  bay,  the  Nar- 
rows and  a  small  amount  to  be  pumped  from  the  area  near  Gravesend,  the  discharge 
of  untreated  sewage  to  continue,  as  at  present,  into  tide  water.     It  is  intended  ulti- 
mately to  extend  all  sewers  to  the  pierhead  line,  and  to  select  points  where  the  cur- 
rents are  swift  for  points  of  discharge. 

2.  In  that  part  of  the  borough  draining  to  Jamaica  bay,   Sheepshead  bay  and 
Coney  Island  creek,  the  sewage  is  to  be  conveyed  to  four  purification  plants  located  at 
the  following  points: 


Name  of  Plant 


a.  Coney  Island  District 


b.  Sheepshead  Bay  District 

c.  Flatbush  District 


d.  East  New  York  District . . 


Locations 


At  the  site  of  the  present  disposal  woiks. 

At  the  site  of  the  present  disposal  works. 

At  Paerdegat  basin  ;  site  not  yet  definitely  located. 

On  site  of  present  26th  Ward  plant  at  Hendrix  street  and  Van  Sicklen  avenue. 


Proposed  Coney  Island  Plant.  It  is  proposed  to  first  construct  the  Coney  Island 
plant,  for  which  the  plans  are  completed,  the  estimates  made  and  the  money  voted  by 
the  properties  included  in  the  district.  Tiie  area  covered  will  be  that  now  draining 
to  the  two  Coney  Island  plants,  caissons  Nos.  2  and  3.  It  will  have  a  capacity  to  treat 
10,000,000  gallons  daily  of  dry  weather  sewage  flow.  Storm  water  is  to  overflow  to 
the  canal.  The  plant  will  be  provided  with  two  double  sets  of  centrifugal  pumps  to 
raise  the  sewage  first  to  the  hydrolytic  tanks,  of  2,  4,  6  or  8  hours'  capacity,  and  then. 
through  pumps,  to  a  regulating  house  from  which  it  will  be  delivered  under  head  to 
the  cast  iron  pipe  system  of  the  sprinkling  filters.  The  effluent  from  the  filters  will 


264 


DATA   COLLECTED 


flow  by  gravity  into  the  settling  tanks,  of  one  hour's  capacity  and  thence  to  the  canal. 
The  sludge  will  be  pumped  to  the  sludge  tanks  or  direct  to  scows,  to  be  towed  out  to  sea. 
The  special  features  of  the  design  are: 

1.  The  various  means  of  flushing  out  the  pipes  and  carrying  the  flushings  back  to 
the  hydrolytic  tanks  rather  than  to  the  canal. 

2.  The  staggering  of  the  nozzle  outlets  so   that  the  area   to  be  covered  by  the 
sprayed  sewage  will  be  a  hexagon  instead  of  a  square. 

3.  The  accessibility  of  all  parts  of  the  plant. 

At  the  time  this  plant  was  first  suggested  Mr.  Rudolph  Hering,  as  Consulting  En- 
gineer for  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  requested  an  estimate  of  cost 
and  operation  and  advised,  as  an  alternative,  to  pump  all  of  the  Coney  Island  sewage 
to  sea  into  deep  water  off  the  westerly  end  of  the  island ;  Mr.  Dunne,  Superintendent 
of  Sewers,  requested  an  estimate  for  a  chemical  precipitation  plant  of  the  design  of 
the  Dublin,  Ireland,  plant.  These  estimates,  extracted  from  a  report  made  by  Mr. 
G.  T.  Hammond,  Engineer  of  Design,  to  the  Chief  Engineer,  are  given  in  Table  VII. 


TABLE    VII 

PRELIMINARY  COMPARATIVE  ESTIMATES  OF  COST  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION  OF 
DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  PLANTS  FOR  CONEY  ISLAND 


Pumping  to 
Sea 

Sprinkling  Filters 

Chemical 
Precipitation 

2,500,000   gal.    per 
acre     per    diem. 
Beds  7  feet  deep, 
8   hours  in  sedi- 
mentation tank 

3,500,000  gal.  per 
acre  per  diem. 
Beds  10  feet  deep, 
8  hours  in  sedi- 
mentation tank 

3,500,000  gal.  per 
acre  per  diem. 
Beds  10  feet  deep, 
2  hours  in  sedi- 
mentation tank 

Capacity  10,000,000  gallons  per  daj  .    Consumption  10,000,000  gallons  per  day  for  4  months 
and  5,000,000  gallons  per  day  for  8  months. 

Cost  of  Construction  

$241,350 
45,664 

$619,923 
70,235 

$561,474 
66,633 

$416,018 
56,451 

$284,782 
93,825 

Annual  Cost  of  Operation.  .  . 

Capacity  3,000,000  gallons   per  day.      Consumption  3,000,000  gallons  per  day  for  4  months 
and  1,500,000  gallons  daily  for  8  months. 

J155,466 
35,343 

$186,362 
35,755 

$145,324 
48,633 

Annual  Cost  of  Operation.  .  . 

The  maximum  quantity  of  sewage  pumped  at  the  two  Coney  Island  plants  in  1900 
was  about  4,000,000  gallons  daily.    A  3,000 ,000-gallon  plant  therefore  would  be  taxed 


Outlets  of  Sewers  in  Wallabout  Canal 


Outlet  of  Kent  Avenue  Sewer  into  Wallabout  Canal.     The  many  sewers  emptying  into  this  canal  have  turned 

it  into  an  open  cesspool 


SEWERAGE  OP  BROOKLYN  265 

to  its  capacity  for  a  few  days  each  year.  A  great  deal  of  ground  water  probably  en- 
ters the  sewers,  though  no  estimate  is  obtainable  beyond  a  general  relation  noted  be- 
tween high  rainfall  and  correspondingly  large  quantities  of  sewage  pumped. 

Proposed  New  2$th  Ward  Plant.  The  general  plan  for  the  proposed  new  26th 
Ward  works  is  to  utilize  part  of  the  old  plant  as  a  screen  chamber  and  pumping  sta- 
tion, and  to  construct  upon  the  70  acres  owned  by  the  City,  in  a  strip  500  feet  wide 
along  the  present  rotten  wooden  flume,  a  canal  the  materials  excavated  from  which  are 
to  form  the  base  upon  which  to  erect  a  set  of  sprinkling  filters  designed  on  the  same 
plan  as  those  proposed  for  the  Coney  Island  plant.  A  capacity  of  50,000,000  gallons 
daily,  ultimately  to  be  extended  to  73,500,000  gallons  daily,  is  proposed.  The  plant 
would  deal  with  the  sewage  from  a  drainage  area  of  6,160  acres. 

The  plans  for  this  plant  have  been  outlined  and  could  be  finished  in  a  short  time ; 
but  the  work  is  not  yet  authorized  and  further  expenditures  of  money  for  purification 
works  are  strongly  objected  to  by  property  holders  upon  whom  the  assessment  would 
fall. 

Proposed  Paerdegat  Plant.  The  Paerdegat  project  has  not  progressed  much  beyond 
the  study  of  revising  the  drainage  areas.  The  exact  location  has  not  been  determined 
upon.  It  would  take  the  drainage  from  6,351  acres  and  have  an  ultimate  capacity  of 
76,000,000  gallons  daily. 

Proposed  Shellbank  Creek  Plant.  The  Shellbank  creek  plant  would  be  located  at 
the  site  of  the  present  Sheepshead  Bay  plant.  It  would  ultimately  drain  an  area  of  1,549 
acres  and  have  a  capacity  of  18,500,000  gallons  daily.  It  would  be  similar  to  the  one 
at  Coney  Island,  but  is  not  yet  designed  nor  authorized. 

BOROUGH    OF    THE    BRONX 
GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics.  The  Borough  of  The  Bronx  has  a  total 
area  of  57.2  square  miles,  of  which  18  square  miles  are  water  surfaces  in  the  East,  Har- 
lem and  Hudson  rivers  with  their  principal  tidewater  tributaries,  leaving  a  total  land 
surface  of  39.2  square  miles.  The  streams  traversing  the  borough  follow  a  general 
southerly  direction,  and  discharge  into  the  Harlem  river  and  the  East  river  with  the 
exception  of  those  in  a  small,  narrow  strip  along  the  Hudson  above  the  mouth  of  the 
Harlem  river.  In  the  territory  lying  west  of  the  Bronx  river  there  are  eleven  drainage 
districts  exclusive  of  that  tributary  directly  to  the  Hudson  river.  The  land  lying  to 
the  east  of  the  Bronx  river  is,  as  a  rule,  much  flatter  than  the  portion  lying  to  the  west 
and  includes  several  square  miles  of  salt  meadows  between  Unionport  anl  Hunts  Point, 
as  well  as  in  the  valley  of  Westchester  creek  and  Eastchester  river. 


26G  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  location,  the  sparseness  of  the  population  and  the  situation  with  respect  to  the 
East  river,  make  this  land  worthy  of  consideration  in  connection  with  possible  future 
works  for  the  purification  of  the  sewage  of  territory  within  reaching  distance. 

In  both  districts  the  ruling  characteristic  of  the  topography  is  that  for  consider- 
able distances  from  the  outlets  at  tide  water  the  valleys  of  the  drainage  areas  are  flat, 
while  the  sides  of  the  valleys  and  upper  ends  are  relatively  steep  and  in  some  places 
precipitous.  This  condition  renders  the  construction  of  sewers  for  storm  water  diffi- 
cult and  expensive,  requiring,  on  account  of  the  flat  slopes  of  the  valleys,  sewers  of 
large  size,  as  the  storm  water  reaches  the  sewers  quickly. 

The  built-up  portion  of  the  borough  lies  for  the  most  part  along  the  lines  of  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  and  New  York  Central  Eailroads,  and  their 
branches,  but  the  remainder  of  the  territory  has  in  recent  years  made  substantial 
growth  following  the  improvement  in  rapid  transit  facilities. 

Distribution  of  Population.  The  population  of  The  Bronx  in  1905  was  271,592, 
the  principal  centers  being  in  the  districts  known  as  Port  Morris,  Casanova,  Morrisauia, 
Tremont,  Fordham,  West  Farms,  Unionport  Westchester,  Williamsbridge,  Kingsbridge, 
Wakefield  and  Woodlawn.  It  is  estimated  that  not  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  total 
area  of  The  Bronx  is  at  present  occupied  by  urban  and  suburban  districts,  the  other 
three-fourths  being  in  park  reservations,  agricultural,  rural  and  marsh  land  districts. 
The  center  of  population  of  The  Bronx  is  at  present  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Crotona  Park,  some  2*/2  miles  above  The  Bronx  Kills. 

General  Conditions.  Much  difficulty  is  imposed  upon  sewer  construction  in  this 
borough  by  the  presence  of  rock  at,  and  just  beneath,  the  surface  of  a  large  portion  of 
the  area,  as  well  as  large  tracts  of  low-lying  land  in  which  the  ground  water  level  is 
higher  than  the  grades  of  the  sewers.  In  several  localities  in  the  lower  ends  of  the 
drainage  areas  the  ground  is  unstable  and  sewers  have  been  ruptured  by  the  settlement 
of  the  earth  during  and  after  construction. 

The  streams  in  The  Bronx  are  all  comparatively  small,  and  it  has  been  necessary  to 
keep  sewage  out  of  them  by  means  of  long  trunk  sewers.  All  the  towns  in  The  Bronx 
along  the  Bronx  river  discharge  their  sewage  into  one  or  another  of  the  several  outlet 
sewers  reaching  tide  water  in  the  East  river. 

The  principal  drainage  districts  in  the  borough  with  their  approximate  areas  in 
acres  and  general  statistics  regarding  the  outlet  sewers  therefrom  are  given  in 
Table  VIII : 


SEWEEAGE  OF  THE  BKONX 

TABLE   VIII 

DRAINAGE  AREAS  IN  TUB  BRONX 
WEST  OF  THE  BUONX  RIVER 


267 


Sewerage 
District 
No. 

Designation  of  Watershed 

Approximate 
Area  Acres 

Main  Outlet  Sewer 

Street 

Diameter 
of  Outfall 

Length, 
Miles 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 

Ice  pond  

405 
190 
2,460 
475 
275 
915 
1,190 
720 
2,175 
630 
285 
1,415 

Park  ave  

7'  6" 
4'  6" 
11'  2" 
7'  9" 
5'  0" 
10'  0" 
9'  6" 
5'  6" 
16'  6" 
4'  6" 
5'  6' 
15'  6" 

2.2 
0.5 
7.0 
2.0 
0.5 
2.5 
3.1 
0.7 
3.0 
3.0 
1.3 
4.6 

Third  nve 

Mill  brook 

E   149th  st  

Port  Morris 

E  138th  st  

Tiffany  st 

Tibbetts  brook. 

E  192d  st  

Hudson  river 

W  248th  st  

Spuyten  Duyvil 

Spuyten  Duyvil  ...        .    .      .    . 

Farragut  st 

Totals  

11,135 

EAST   OF   THE    BRONX   RIVER 


43 
44 

45 
46 
47 

Pugsleys  creek  

7,500 

Pugs  ley  Ave                              \ 

(AveE 
sewer) 

i  

Hutchinson  river  

Givans  creek,  etc  .    

2,560 
1,350 
1,920 
350 

Old  Ferry  Pt  

Weir  creek  

Throgs  Neck  

Pelhara  Bay  Park  

City  Island  

Ends  of  Streets 

Totals  

=38.8  square  miles 
.4      "          " 

13,680 
24,815  acres 

Totals  

Detached  Islands  

Total  area  of  The  Bronx  . 

39.2      " 

Proposed  Unionport  Seicers.    White  Plains  road  into  East  river ;  Lafayette  avenue 
into  Westchester  river,  10  feet  by  8  feet,  12  feet  by  9  feet,  10  feet  by  8  feet. 


268  DATA    COLLECTED 

Relief  Sewers.  Webster  avenue  tunnel  relief,  outlet  in  Harleni  river,  13  feet  6 
inches  diameter;  Truxton  street  sewer,  outlet  in  East  river,  7  feet  3  inches  by  11  feet 
6  inches. 

Bureau  of  Sewers.  The  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Borough  of  The  Bronx  has,  in  the 
present  organization,  three  separate  bureaus  under  his  charge,  one  of  which  is  the  Bu- 
reau of  Sewers.  The  Bureau  jof  Sewers  has  supervision  of : 

(a)  Surveys  and  investigations  of  all  sewer  improvements. 

(6)  The  designs  for  all  new  sewerage  works. 

(o)  The  supervision  of  the  construction  of  sewerage  works. 

(d)  The  maintenance  and  repairs  of  the  sewers. 

Responsibility  for  the  design,  maintenance  and  construction  of  all  sewerage 
works  rests  upon  the  Engineer  of  Sewers.  The  designs  for  sewers  in  The  Bronx  have 
been  paid  for  by  the  issue  of  corporate  stock;  the  other  boroughs  of  New  York  include 
the  expense  for  sewer  plans  in  the  tax  levy.  Studies  are  now  being  made  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  plans  for  several  undeveloped  drainage  districts  east  of  the  Bronx  river. 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Design.  For  the  territory  lying  to  the  west  of  The  Bronx,  and  which  is  exten- 
sively, although  not  satisfactorily  provided  with  sewerage,  the  works  are  upon  the 
combined  plan,  making  provision  to  admit  both  house  sewage  and  storm  water.  A 
complete  set  of  lithographed  plans  of  the  sewerage  in  the  territory  west  of  The  Bronx 
was  published  by  direction  of  the  Borough  President  in  1897.  These  show  all  the 
sewers  that  \vere  constructed  at  that  time,  with  their  routes,  sizes,  elevations  and  con- 
nections. 

The  various  sewerage  systems  occupy  with  slight  exceptions  the  natural  water- 
sheds. 

For  the  territory  east  of  the  Bronx  river  no  comprehensive  plans  have  been  com- 
piled, and,  in  fact,  the  drainage  plans  for  the  watersheds  of  this  district  are  now  being 
prepared. 

A  provision  in  the  Greater  New  York  Charter  permits  the  construction  of  sew- 
ers by  private  parties  or  companies  who  are  unable  or  unwilling  to  wait  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  territory  in  regular  manner.  For  such  sewers  the  designs  are  made 
by  or  approved  by  the  Bureau  of  Sewers,  which  also  provides  inspectors  to  look 
after  the  construction  of  the  work.  When  such  sewers  are  completed  they  are  placed 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Bureau  of  Maintenance.  This  procedure  has  not  been, 
to  any  great  extent,  resorted  to  in  The  Bronx. 

The  formulae  and  methods  used  for  the  design  of  The  Bronx  sewers  are  similar 
to  those  used  in  the  other  boroughs,  and  are  given  on  pages  89  and  90. 


SEWERAGE  OF  THE  BRONX  269 

No  attempt  is  made  in  designing  sewers  in  The  City  of  New  York  to  provide  for 
the  maximum  rain  storms,  and  in  order  to  be  protected  against  further  suits  for 
damages  due  to  flooding  from  inadequate  sewer  capacity,  the  approval  of  plans  by 
the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  when  the  plans  are  intended  to  serve  the 
reasonable  needs  only  of  undeveloped  territory,  is  qualified  by  this  note : 

"  The  sewers  shown  on  the  drainage  plan  are  intended  to  have  a  capacity 
adequate  for  the  reasonable  needs  of  the  drainage  district  for  a  limited  period, 
and  are  not  intended  to  be  of  adequate  size  for  immediately  removing  the 
storm  water  when  the  precipitation  is  at  an  abnormal  rate  or  when  the  drain- 
age area  shall  have  become  largely  or  fully  improved.  The  capacity  has  been 
thus  restricted  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  cost  within  limits  which  it  is 
deemed  may  be  now  properly  assessed  upon  property  benefited." 

Records  of  rainfall  and  excessive  rainstorms  have  been  kept  by  the  Bureau  of 
Sewers  of  The  Bronx  only  since  1904.  The  quantities  of  storm  water  to  be  pro- 
vided for  have  been  based  upon  experience  of  other  cities,  upon  the  formula  de- 
duced for  Manhattan  conditions  by  Mr.  Rudolph  Hering  in  1887  and  1888,  and  on 
the  measurements  of  the  velocity  of  flow  in  street  gutters  in  the  Borough  of  Rich- 
mond. 

Sewers.  No  important  troubles  were  experienced  with  the  older  sewers  in  The 
Bronx  until  within  about  six  to  eight  years.  The  increase  in  impervious  areas,  re- 
sulting from  the  extension  of  pavements  and  the  increase  in  roof  areas  has  aug- 
mented the  quantity,  and  shortened  the  time  required  for  storm  water  to  reach  the 
sewers.  These  two  conditions  have  increased  the  intensity  of  flow  until  some  of  the 
sewers  have  been  taxed  beyond  their  capacity. 

Brook  Avenue  Sewer.  The  principal  sewers  in  The  Bronx  are  those  which  drain 
the  valleys  of  Mill  brook,  Leggetts  creek,  Croniwells  creek,  Tibbetts  brook  and  the 
Bronx  river. 

The  Brook  avenue  sewer  was  built  about  twenty-six  years  ago,  and  its  construc- 
tion was  a  very  heavy  burden  on  the  taxpayers.  Nor  was  it  constructed  Avith  the 
view  of  providing  sufficient  capacity  for  the  full  development  of  the  territory  in 
which  it  ran.  The  construction  of  a  sewer  of  sufficient  size  to  satisfy  completely  all 
future  conditions  would  have  been  too  expensive.  This  sewer  empties  into  the  Bronx 
Kills,  at  which  point  its  diameter  is  11  feet  2  inches.  The  invert  or  floor  of  the 
sewer  at  the  end  of  the  outfall  is  11  feet  below  mean  high  tide;  at  the  shore  line 
it  is  8  feet  below  mean  high  tide.  The  bottom  of  the  sewer  does  not  reach  the  ele- 
vation of  mean  high  tide  until  it  has  extended  to  the  crossing  of  the  New  York  and 
Harlem  Railroad,  a  distance  of  approximately  two  miles  from  its  mouth.  When 
the  tides  are  exceptionally  high  the  section  of  the  sewer  is  completely  filled  for  a 


270  DATA    COLLECTED 

long  distance,  and  when  this  occurs  at  times  of  low  stream  flow  deposits  take  place 
in  the  sewer  due  to  the  checking  of  the  velocity.  At  the  present  time  it  is  reported 
that  the  sediment  is  from  two  to  three  feet  in  depth  in  the  sewer. 

Starting  with  a  diameter  of  11  feet  2  inches  at  the  Bronx  Kills,  the  sewer  fol- 
lows Brook  avenue  to  its  junction  with  Webster  avenue  at  One  Hundred  and  Sixty- 
sixth  street,  at  which  point  the  diameter  is  reduced  to  8  feet  10  inches.  It  then  fol- 
lows Webster  avenue,  the  diameter  being  6  feet  at  the  crossing  of  the  Mosholu  park- 
way, and  41/0  feet  to  Woodlawn  road,  which  it  follows  to  Norwood  street,  running 
thence  to  Perry  avenue,  which  it  follows,  with  the  same  diameter,  to  Gunhill  road, 
and  with  a  diameter  of  3  feet  to  East  Two  Hundred  and  Eleventh  street.  On  East 
Two  Hundred  and  Eleventh  street  it  turns  west  and  runs  to  Woodlawn  road,  follow- 
ing this  to  its  terminus  at  about  East  Two  Hundred  and  Fourteenth  street,  at 
the  angle  between  Van  Cortlandt  Park  and  Woodlawn  Cemetery.  At  the  corner 
of  Perry  avenue  and  Two  Hundred  and  Eleventh  street  the  elevation  of  the  invert 
is  1341/2,  and  at  Mosholu  parkway  the  elevation  is  50  feet,  a  fall  of  84%  feet  in 
a  distance  of  about  a  mile.  The  total  slope  in  the  remaining  six  miles  of  the  sewer 
is  only  50  feet.  This  indicates  in  a  general  wtay  the  nature  of  the  valley  through 
which  the  sewer  runs,  and  offers  an  explanation  of  some  of  the  difficulties  that  have 
been  had  with  its  operation. 

The  deposits  that  form  in  this  sewer  have  been  the  source  of  a  good  deal  of 
trouble,  for  the  reason  that  the  Maintenance  Department  of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers 
can  not  furnish  enough  men  to  clean  it  or  to  keep  it  clean,  the  volume  of  material 
to  be  removed  is  so  large.  It  is  stated  that  at  one  time  a  contract  was  let  for  the 
removal  of  5,000  cubic  yards  of  deposits  from  this  sewer,  and  that  when  the  con- 
tractor had  finished,  there  was  practically  as  much  deposit  left  in  the  sewer  as  when 
he  began.  Bequests  for  funds  for  the  cleaning  of  the  sewer  have  been  asked  for  of  the 
Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  but  have  not  been  provided.  During  storms 
of  more  than  moderate  intensity,  the  sewer  becomes  choked,  and  finds  relief  for  the 
pressure  by  discharging  through  the  manholes  and  flooding  the  streets  and  adjacent 
properties. 

Broadway  Outlet  Kewer.  The  sewer  which  drains  the  valley  of  Tibbetts  brook 
and  discharge  into  the  Harlem  river  at  East  One  Hundred  and  Ninety-second 
street,  is  one  of  the  largest  sewers  in  The  Bronx,  having  a  diameter  of  16  feet  6 
inches  at  the  outfall.  It  follows  Exterior  street  northerly  to  Broadway,  and  along 
Broadway  to  West  Two  Hundred  and  Thirty-fourth  street,  with  a  diameter  of  15 
feet,  reducing  to  141/2  feet  at  West  Two  Hundred  and  Thirty-sixth  street,  and  14 
feet  at  West  Two  Hundred  and  Forty-first  street,  where  its  diameter  is  reduced  to 


SEWERAGE  OF  THE  BRONX  271 

714  feet  as  far  as  West  Two  Hundred  and  Forty-second  street.  From  West  Two  Hun- 
dred and  Forty-second  street  it  has  a  diameter  of  7  feet  to  the  junction  of  Newtown 
avenue,  and  from  thence  to  Two  Hundred  and  Sixty-first  street  it  gradually  reduces 
in  size  in  accordance  with  the  reduction  of  the  drainage  area  to  a  diameter  of  3 
feet,  where  provision  is  made  for  taking  in  a  small  amount  of  drainage  from  Yonkers 
if  necessary.  This  sewer  is  a  concrete  steel  structure  at  its  lower  end,  with  a  sec- 
tion equivalent  to  a  circle  of  16  feet  0  inches  in  diameter.  Its  diameter,  however, 
is  not  sufficient  to  take  care  of  the  entire  drainage  area  when  Tibbetts  brook  shall 
have  been  turned  into  it,  and  when  the  tributary  territory  shall  have  become  fully 
developed.  It  is  contemplated  that  in  the  future,  relief  sewers  may  be  needed  for 
this  district. 

Farragut  Street  Seioer.  The  Farragut  street  sewer  discharges  into  the  East  river 
on  Farragut  street  nearly  opposite  Rikers  Island.  It  lias  a  cross  section  at  the  out- 
let equivalent  to  a  circular  area  15  feet  6  inches  in  diameter.  This  sewer  drains  what 
is  designated  as  the  Bronx  river  watershed,  a  strip  about  a  half  mile  wide  west  of  The 
Bronx,  extending  from  Hunts  Point  on  the  East  river,  to  St.  John's  College,  a  dis- 
tance of  4.6  miles.  The  sewer  follows  along  the  Hunts  Point  road  to  Whittier  street, 
and  thence  to  the  West  Farms  road  and  Boston  road  to  East  One  Hundred  and 
Seven ty-eighth  street,  where  the  diameter  is  7  feet.  It  then  runs  west  on  One  Hun- 
dred and  Seventy-eighth  street  to  the  Southern  boulevard,  which  it  follows  to  East 
( hie  Hundred  and  Eighty -seventh  street,  which  it  follows  for  several  blocks,  being 
finally  reduced  to  a  diameter  of  about  2y2  feet.  The  outlet  of  the  Farragut  street 
sewer  is  placed  high  enough  to  prevent  its  tide-locking. 

Tiffany  Avenue  Sewer.  The  Tiffany  avenue  sewer  empties  into  the  East  river  at 
a  point  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  to  the  west  of  the  Farragut  street  sewer.  It 
has  a  diameter  of  10  feet  at  the  point  of  discharge,  and  the  end  of  the  outlet  is  sub- 
merged. It  follows  Tiffany  street  to  Spofford  street,  and  thence  along  Longwood  road 
to  the  Southern  boulevard  and  Intervale  avenue,  at  which  point  its  diameter  is  re- 
duced to  8  feet.  It  then  follows  Intervale  avenue  for  the  rest  of  its  course  to  the 
side  of  Crotona  Park,  where  it  ends  with  a  diameter  of  4  feet.  The  tributary  water- 
shed of  this  sewer,  which  occupies  the  valley  of  Leggetts  creek,  is  915  acres.  The 
length  of  the  sewer  is  about  two  and  one-half  miles.  The  invert  or  sewer  bottom  is 
practically  above  high  tide,  excepting  for  the  first  half  mile. 

Jerome  Avenue  Sewer.  The  sewer  discharging  into  the  Harlem  river  at  Jerome 
avenue  drains  the  valley  of  Crom wells  creek  which  has  a  watershed  of  1,190  acres.  At 
the  point  of  discharge  the  sewer  is  9  feet  6  inches  in  diameter.  It  follows  Jerome  ave- 


272  DATA   COLLECTED 

nue  for  its  entire  length,  with  the  exception  of  about  2,000  feet.  Its  total  length  is 
about  3.1  miles.  This  is  one  of  the  sewers  the  outlet  of  which  is  tide-locked. 

East  One  Hundred  and  Forty-ninth  Street  Sewer.  The  sewer  outletting  into  the 
East  river  behind  North  Brother  Island  in  One  Hundred  and  Forty-ninth  street, 
drains  the  Bungay  creek  watershed,  which  has  an  area  of  475  acres.  The  sewer  is 
7  feet  9  inches  in  diameter  at  its  mouth,  and  extends  back  about  two  miles  from  the 
water-front. 

Sewers  of  Unionport.  Outlet  sewers  of  large  size  compared  with  the  immediate 
needs  of  the  Unionport  district,  which  occupies  a  portion  of  the  sewerage  district  No. 
43,  have  been  and  are  now  being  constructed.  Appropriations  have  not  yet  been  ap- 
proved for  lateral  sewers  to  connect  with  these  trunk  lines.  There  are  very  few 
sewer  outlets  at  present  in  the  territory  of  The  Bronx  east  of  the  Bronx  river. 
Those  now  ready  for  contract,  or  under  construction,  are  the  outlet  on  Lafay- 
ette avenue,  in  connection  \vith  the  sewer  on  Avenue  A  (Zerega  avenue),  Lafayette 
avenue,  Avenue  B  (Havemeyer  avenue),  Lacombe  avenue,  and  the  outlet  at  the»White 
Plains  road  for  the  sewers  on  that  road,  as  well  as  the  dry  weather  flows  of  the  Ave- 
nue A  and  Avenue  E  sewers,  which  at  present  go  into  Westchester  river  and  Pugsleys 
creek,  respectively.  The  Lafayette  avenue  outlet  has  a  triple  section ;  the  two  outside 
openings  are  10  feet  by  8  feet,  and  the  central  one  12  feet  by  9  feet  in  section.  A  con- 
nection will  join  the  Lafayette  avenue,  Avenue  E  and  White  Plains  road  sewers, 
through  which  the  house  sewage  from  each  of  these  large  sewers  will  be  conducted 
to  the  White  Plains  road  outlet  into  the  East  river.  The  Avenue  E  sewer  is  in  dupli- 
cate, each  part  being  10  feet  6  inches  by  8  feet  in  section.  It  is  completed  to  the  inter- 
section of  Avenue  E  and  Kandall  avenue.  Storm  water  flows  in  the  Avenue  E  sewer 
will  be  discharged  in  the  Pugleys  creek  and  the  storm  water  from  the  Avenue  A  sewer 
will  be  discharged  into  Westchester  creek  at  the  foot  of  Lafayette  avenue.  Both 
the  Lafayette  avenue  and  Avenue  E  sewers  now  have  temporary  outlets  for  all  sewage. 

An  area  of  7,500  acres  is  included  in  drainage  district  No.  43,  ultimately  the  whole 
of  which  will  outlet  at  the  points  indicated  above. 

Unionport  and  Westchester  have  sewers  on  the  separate  system,  or  storm  water 
drains  only.  It  is  said  that  undoubtedly  a  great  many  house  connections  are  made 
direct  to  the  storm  water  drains  on  rain  water  permits. 

City  Island  Sewers.  There  are  no  city  sewers  for  domestic  sewage  on  City  Island. 
Plans  have  been  made  to  extend  sewers  out  into  the  Sound  at  the  foot  of  each  street. 
The  Highway  Department  has  just  graded  and  paved  the  main  street,  running  length- 
wise of  the  island,  and  a  storm  water  drain  running  to  either  end  has  been  installed. 
It  is  thought  a  number  of  house  connections  have  been  made  to  this  drain. 


\e\vtown  Creek.     The  tonnage  of  traffic  here  is  greater  than  on  any  other  single  tidal 
estuary  of  equal  length  in  the  United  States 


Typical  gcene  Along  the  Waterfront  of  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn  in  Summer 


SEWERAGE  OF  THE  BRONX  273 

Catch  Basins.  At  street  intersections  and  low  places  in  the  street  grades  the 
surface  waters  are  taken  into  the  sewers  from  the  streets  through  catch  basins  of  the 
type  of  construction  usual  in  New  York.  It  is  problematical  how  much  benefit  re- 
sults from  the  use  of  catch  basins  in  connection  with  sewers  such  as  the  Brook  avenue 
sewer,  for  instance.  That  they  do  not  hold  back  the  surface  detritus  effectively  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  even  with  a  large  gang  of  men  at  work  cleaning  the  sewers, 
it  is  impossible  to  make  any  perceptible  impression  on  the  two  to  three  feet  of  sediment 
in  its  bottom. 

Ventilation.  Ventilation,  such  as  is  secured  in  most  of  The  Bronx  sewers,  takes 
place  only  through  the  holes  in  the  manhole  covers.  The  entrance  of  air  into  the  sew- 
ers by  way  of  the  outlets  is  prevented  in  30  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  sewers  by 
the  submergence  of  the  outlet  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  air  in  some  of  the  sewers  is  so  contaminated  as  to  prevent  entrance  for  in- 
spection. An  example  of  this  condition  is  to  be  found  in  the  case  of  the  Park  avenue 
sewer,  into  which  it  has  been  practically  impossible  to  enter  for  a  number  of  years 
owing  to  the  discharge  into  it  of  gas  wastes. 

Flushing.  There  are  four  flush  tanks  on  the  sewers  in  The  Bronx.  These 
are  on  sanitary  sewers  west  of  The  Bronx  where  the  separate  system  has  been  used 
to  a  limited  extent.  In  addition  to  the  regular  flushing  by  tanks,  the  sewers  are  occa- 
sionally flushed  out  with  a  stream  from  a  fire-hose. 

Outfalls.  The  sewers  of  The  Bronx  all  discharge  by  gravity  into  either  the  Hud- 
son river,  the  Harlem  river,  Bronx  Kills  or  the  East  river.  The  discharge  in  most 
cases  takes  place  at  the  bulkhead  line,  and  at  least  one-third  of  all  the  existing  out- 
falls are  at  so  low  an  elevation  as  to  be  tide-locked,  and  filled  with  back  water  for 
a  great  length.  The  Brook  avenue  sewer,  for  instance,  is  subject  to  backwater  for 
about  two  miles  of  its  length. 

The  newer  and  more  recent  sewers  are  provided  with  more  satisfactory  outfalls 
than  many  of  the  older  ones,  but  the  problem  involves,  in  many  instances,  much  diffi- 
culty in  the  matter  of  construction. 


274 


DATA  COLLECTED 


TABLE  IX 

OUTLETS  OP  THE  SEWERS  OF  THE  BRONX 


Location 

Diameter 

Elevation  of  Invert  at  Outfall* 

Into  the  Hudson  River  — 
West  261st  street       

2'  6" 
4'  0" 
4'  6" 
1'  6" 
3'  9" 

2'  6" 
5'  6" 
5'  6" 
16'  6" 
1'  0" 
5'  6" 
4'  9" 
1'  6" 
3'  6" 
2'  6" 
13'  6" 
1'  0" 
4'  0" 
1'  6" 
9'  6" 
3'  0" 
5'  0" 
2-1'  0" 
7'  6" 
2'8"x4'0" 
4'  6" 

11'  2" 
2'  6" 
1'  6" 
2'  6" 

—6.0 
—6.0 
—6.0 
—6.0 
—6.0 

—1.0 
—6.0 
—1.0 
—6.0 
—7.5 
—1.0 
—6.0 
—5.0 
—5.0 
—4.0 
—5.94 
—2.0 
—5.0 
—2.0 
—6.0 
—6.0 
—6.0 
0.0 
0.0 
—3.76 
—3.4 

—8.0 
—6.0 
—3.0 
—4.5 

—9.5 
—11.0 
—11.5 
—8.5 
—11.0 

—9.0 
—12.0 
—11.0 

West  254th  street  

West  248th  street  

West  247th  street  

West  236th  street  

Into  the  Harlem  River  — 
Near  Hudson  river  outlet  

Main  sewer  Spuyten  Duyvil     

East  192d  street 

East  191st  street                             

Fordham  road    

—11.0 
—11.0 
—8.0 
—10.5 
—9.5 

East  178th  street  

East  177th  street  

East  176th  street       

East  171st  street  '.  

—8.0 
—10.0 
—8.0 
—12.0 
—9.5 
—12.0 
—7.0 
—13.5 

East  167th  street       

East  164th  street                   .         

East  150th  street                                

East  149th  street          

East  138th  street                                

Third  avenue                                      .       

Lincoln  avenue  

—11. 

—11.0 
—9.0 
—8.0 
—9.0 

Into  Bronx  Kills  — 

Walnut  avenue      .       .               

*  The  elevations  of  the  inverts  are  expressed  in  feet  below  mean  high  tide  at  the  Third  Avenue  Bridge  across  the  Harlem  river 
the  figures  in  the  first  column  refer  to  the  elevation  of  the  sewer  at  the  bulkhead  line;  those  in  the  second  column  to  the  elevation  ot 
the  Invert  of  the  outfall  section. 


SEWERAGE    OF    THE    BRONX 
TABLE  IX— Continued 


275 


Location 

Diameter 

Elevation  of  Invert  at  Outfall* 

Into  the  East  River  — 
Locust  avenue  

1'  3" 
1'  0" 
3'  6" 
\'  0" 

r  o" 
r  o" 

5'  0" 

r  o" 
r  o" 

7'  9" 
1'  0" 
4'  6" 
Il'6"x7'3" 
10'  0" 
4'  0" 
15'  6" 
6'  0" 

0.0 
0.0 
—5.0 

—8.0 
—1.5 
—9.5 

East  132d  street  

East  134th  street                                         .           .  .                     .    . 

East  13oth  street 

East  136th  street 

Ea,-t  137th  street 

East  138th  street  

—5.0 

—11.0 

East  139th  street 

East  140th  street  

East  149th  street  .  .             .  .             .          

—5.0 

—11.0 

Cabot  street  ....                                              .        .... 

Dupont  street  

—6.0 

—11.0 

Truxton  street  (relief  for  East  149th  street) 

Tiffany  street 

—6.0 
—6.0 
—6.0 
—6.0 

—12.0 
—11.0 

Manida  street  

Farragut  street 

Ryawa 

—13.0 

White  Plains  road  (proposed) 

Lafayette  avenue  **  (proposed  storm  water  overflow  for  Avenue  E) 
Old  Ferrj  Point 

10'0"x8'0" 
12'0"x9'0" 
10'0"x8'0" 
No  data  as  to  are 
No  data  as  to  are. 
Four  small  sewers 

i  drained. 
i  drained, 
discharee  to  tide  water. 

Throgs  Neck 

Citv  Island  .  . 

*  The  elevations  of  the  inverts  are  expressed  in  feet  below  mean  high  tide  at  the  Third  Avenue  Bridge  across  the  Harlem  river; 
ths  figures  in  the  first  column  refer  to  the  elevation  of  tha  sewer  at  the  bulkhead  line;  those  in  the  second  column  to  the  elevation 
of  the  invert  of  the  outfall  section. 

**  The  Lafayette  outlets  take  storm  water  from  Havemeyer,  Zerega  and  Lafayette  avenues  to  Westchester  creek.  The 
Avenue  K  outlet  for  storm  water  is  into  Pugsleys  creek;  the  White  Plains  outlet  is  to  take  its  own  storm  water  and  the  sanitary 
sewage  from  Lafayette,  Avenue  E  and  White  Plains  road  districts. 


276 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Growth  of  the  System.    The  number  of  miles  of  sowers  built  in  The  Bronx  each 
.rear,  aiid  the  totals  siuce  1874,  are  given  in  Table  X: 

TABLE  X 

GROWTH  OF  THE  SEWER  SYSTEM  IN  THE  BRONX 


Year 

District  West  of  Bronx** 

Whole  of  Borough 

District  West  of  Bronx 

East  of  Bronx 

Receiving 
Basins 
Built 

Total 
to 
Date 

Miles  of 
Sewers 
Built 

Total 
to 
Date 

Miles  of 
Sewers 
Built 

Total 
to 
Date 

Miles  of 
Sewers 
Built 

Total 
to 
Date 

1874 

130 

3.24 

3.24 

1875] 

to 

567 

33.39 

33.39 

1890 

697 

36.63 

36.63 

1891' 

1892 

1893 

1894 

819 

73.32 

1895 

1.43 

1896 

4.06 

1897 

1,516 

115.44 

109.95 

5.49 

1898 

1899 
1900 

621 

62.07 

4.18 

1901 

2,137 

181.73 

172.02 

9.71 

1902 

120 

2,257 

13.75 

195.48 

9.21 

181.23 

4.54 

14.25 

1903 

1,70 

2,427 

16.24 

211.72 

6.85 

188.08 

9.39 

23.64 

1904 

85 

2,512 

12.06 

223.78 

5.64 

193.72 

6.42 

30.06 

1905 

128 

2,640 

12.56 

236.34 

9.87 

203.59 

2.68 

32.74 

1906 

118 

2,758 

11.11 

247.45 

9.32 

212.91 

1.80 

34.54 

1907 

133 

2,891 

11.  '51 

258.96 

10.97 

223.88 

.54 

35.08 

1908 

120* 

3,011* 

11.04* 

270.00 

•Board  of  Estimate  Report,  1908.  ** There  are  no  basins  reported  for  the  district  east  of  the  Bronx  river. 

Construction  Difficulties.  A  great  deal  of  trouble  has  been  experienced  on  filled 
and  marshy  ground  where  it  has  been  necessary  to  put  embankments  over  the  sewers 
after  completion,  by  mud-waves,  which,  in  places,  have  eventually  wrecked  the  struc- 
tures. It  is  now  the  practice  to  first  construct  and  compact  the  embankments  and 
build  the  sewers  in  excavations  made  tliereiu. 


SEWEKAGE  OF  THE  BRONX  277 

/'/«//,->•  of  Local  Authorities  for  Future  Work.  Plans  for  future  work  contemplate, 
in  general,  the  detailed  designing  and  working  up  of  details  of  sewerage  for  Drainage 
District  No.  43,  with  its  7,500  acres  outletting  at  Classon  point,  and  Drainage  Districts 
Nos.  44  and  45,  having  2,560  and  1,350  acres  respectively  and  outletting  at  Old  Ferry 
Point  and  Throgs  Neck. 

BELIEF  SBWEUS 

For  a  number  of  years  trouble  has  been  experienced  in  various  of  The  Bronx 
sewers,  owing  to  congestion  and  consequent  floods.  In  1901  two  particularly  heavy 
storms  caused  a  good  deal  of  damage  by  flooding.  As  a  consequence,  steps  were  taken 
to  relieve  the  Brook  avenue  sewer,  as  well  as  the  territory  in  Bungay  creek,  Leggetts 
creek  and  Mill  brook  watersheds. 

Webster  Avenue  Relief  Tunnel.  The  plan  for  the  relief  of  the  Brook  avenue  sewer, 
which  has  been  put  into  execution  and  is  now  (1910)  about  three-fourths  finished,  is  to 
divert  the  entire  flow  of  the  Webster  avenue  sewer  into  a  tunnel  at  Webster  and  Wend- 
over  avenues,  passing  westward  and  discharging  into  the  Harlem  river  a  short  distance 
above  High  Bridge.  The  tunnel  is  to  be  about  6,800  feet  long  and  have  a  cross  section 
equivalent  to  that  of  a  circle  13  feet  6  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  planned  to  close  up 
the  section  of  the  old  Brook  avenue  just  below  Wendover  street  when  the  tunnel  is 
ready  to  use.  Even  with  the  relief  provided  by  this  tunnel  it  is  stated  that  before 
many  years  it  will  be  necessary  to  construct  still  another  sewer  parallel  with  the 
Brook  avenue  sewer. 

When  the  Brook  avenue  sewer  was  stripped  of  covering  to  make  connection  with 
the  new  Webster  avenue  relief  tunnel  a  very  heavy  flow,  due  to  a  rainstorm,  occurred 
coincidently  with  high  tide,  the  sewer  became  overtaxed,  and  the  added  pressure 
blew  off  the  arch  ring  and  flooded  the  tunnel  work.  This  is  the  first  time  the 
sewer  has  broken,  the  discharge  into  the  streets  through  the  manholes  heretofore  hav- 
ing given  sufficient  relief. 

Tru.rton  Street  Relief  Seiccr.  The  Truxton  street  relief  sewer  is  a  reinforced  con- 
crete structure  of  a  horseshoe  section  7  feet  3  inches  by  11  feet  6  inches.  It  was  built 
to  afford  relief  to  the  sewers  of  the  Leggetts  creek  and  Bungay  creek  watersheds. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  SYSTEM 

Inspections.  The  organization  of  the  maintenance  force  does  not  include  regular- 
ly appointed  inspectors  of  basins  and  sewers;  the  foremen  in  charge  of  the  cleaning 
gangs,  however,  inspect  basins  where  cleaning  operations  are  going  on  and  investigate 
immediately  the  causes  of  such  complaints. 


278  DATA   COLLECTED 

Cleaning  Sewers.  Sufficient  funds  are  allowed  for  cleaning  basins  and  smaller 
sewers,  but  for  large  sewers,  such  as  the  Brook  avenue  sewer,  special  appropriations 
are  much  needed.  The  work  of  cleaning  is  done  by  day  labor  rather  than  by  contract, 
and  by  hand,  no  sewer  cleaning  machines  being  in  use.  In  1907  the  force  examined 
76,170  lineal  feet  and  cleaned  32,467  lineal  feet  of  sewers,  and  examined  37  and 
cleaned  1,053  basins.  There  being  then  2,891  basins,  each  was  cleaned  about  three 
times  during  the  year. 

Cleaning  Catch  Basins.  In  the  various  reports  no  basins  are  credited  to  the  ter- 
ritory east  of  Bronx  river.  Quite  a  number,  however,  have  been  built  by  the  Bureau 
of  Highways,  and  are  or  will  be  connected  to  the  sewers.  Recently  the  same  design  as 
used  by  Bureau  of  Sewers  has  been  used  by  Bureau  of  Highways.  The  basins  are 
turned  over  to  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  to  maintain  when  connected.  Everything  goes 
into  the  basins  just  the  same  as  in  the  other  boroughs.  The  law  against  this  seems  to 
be  a  dead  letter,  as  the  Magistrates  discharge  all  such  cases.  The  cleanings  from  catch 
basins,  which  consist  very  largely  of  sand  and  earth,  are  used  for  filling.  The  sewer 
cleanings  in  many  cases  are  hauled  to  the  garbage  barges. 

Steam  in  Sewers.  Connecting  steam  exhaust  pipes  to  the  sewers  is  practiced,  but 
there  is  not  enough  going  into  sewers  at  present  to  cause  any  complaint.  It  does  not 
show  to  any  extent  from  manholes  in  winter. 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal  Discharge.  The  sewage  of  The  Bronx  is  discharged  into  the  tidal  waters 
surrounding  the  borough  without  treatment  of  any  sort.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
no  purification  plants  within  the  limits  of  the  borough,  although  there  are  some  few 
small  ones  in  the  valley  of  the  Bronx  river  above  the  city  limits. 

No  definite  plans  for  sewage  disposal  other  than  as  at  present,  into  the  Harlem  and 
East  rivers,  has  been  proposed.  The  Harlem  river  waterfront  is  occupied  largely  by 
railroads;  and  the  East  river  and  Sound  front  has  not  been  developed,  so  that  com- 
plaints are  very  rarely,  if  ever,  heard  against  the  present  method  of  disposal,  although 
sleek  from  the  Farargut  street  outlet  has  been  noted  in  the  East  river  flowing  pasl 
Classon  point. 

The  condition  of  the  Harlem  and  East  rivers  as  described  in  connection  with  the 
sewerage  of  Manhattan,  is  so  unsatisfactory  that  a  plan  for  their  protection  is  an  im- 
mediate necessity. 

A  recent  communication  from  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  to  the 
Bureau  of  Sewers  of  The  Bronx  asked  for  information  as  to  the  feasibility  and  costs  of 
building  screening  devices  at  the  end  of  each  outlet  sewer,  but  no  money  was  appro- 


SEWERAGE  OF  QUEENS  279 

printed  for  the  investigation  and  report,  and  it  \vas  impossible  to  supply  the  infor- 
mation, although  it  is  believed  by  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  that  some  other  disposition  or 
treatment  of  The  Bronx  sewage  than  is  now  practiced  will  ultimately  be  needed. 

BOROUGH    OF    QUEENS 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Toi>uyr<ii>hical  Characteristics.  The  Borough  of  Queens  is  approximately 
trapezoidal  in  shape,  the  smaller  end  bordering  on  Jamaica  bay.  The  borough,  which 
has  an  area  of  117  square  miles,  and  had  in  1905  a  population  of  197,838,  includes  a 
number  of  small  towns. 

The  high  ridge  of  the  terminal  moraine,  rising  from  100  to  180  feet  above  sea  level, 
extends  across  Queens  from  Forest  Park  to  a  point  about  a  mile  north  of  the  town  of 
Queens.  The  only  exposure  of  crystalline  rocks  on  Long  Island  occurs  in  Long  Island 
City  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Hell  Gate.  Flushing  bay  creek  indents  the 
northern  portion  of  the  borough  and  New  town  creek  forms  the  southern  boundary  of 
Long  Island  City. 

There  are  three  main  populated  districts: 

1.  Long  Island  City  and  the  territory  as  far  to  the  east  and  south  as  Flushing 
creek  and  Forest  Park ; 

2.  Flushing  and  all  the  territory  north  of  the  ridge  of  hills; 

3.  Woodhaven,  Richmond  Hill,  Jamaica  and  all  territory  to  the  south  of  the  ridge 
of  hills. 

One  portion  of  the  Long  Island  City  area  drains  into  East  river;  a  second  portion 
southwest  of  the  line  of  cemeteries  drains  into  Newtown  creek,  and  the  third,  including 
Elmhurst  and  Newtown  and  contiguous  areas  drains  into  Flushing  creek. 

Of  the  Flushing  territory,  one  portion  drains  into  Flushing  creek  or  the  bay;  a  sec- 
ond, at  College  Point,  drains  into  the  bay  and  East  river;  a  third,  at  Whitestone,  drains 
into  the  East  river,  and  a  fourth  and  last,  at  Bayside,  drains  into  Little  Neck  bay. 

All  of  the  Jamaica  territory  drains  into  Jamaica  bay. 

Municipalities  in  the  Borough.  Little  information  can  be  had  regarding  the 
earlier  Queens  borough  sewers  for  the  reason  that  no  comprehensive  plans  have  yet 
been  outlined,  each  small  territory  having  been  heretofore  considered  by  itself. 
Numerous  small  systems  have  been  independently  built,  each  of  which  presented  its 
own  special  difficulties.  Statistical  data  of  some  twenty-nine  towns  in  the  five  wards 
which  make  up  the  Borough  of  Queens,  together  with  their  areas  and  the  status  of 
street  surveys,  at  time  of  consolidation,  are  given  in  Table  XI. 


280 


DATA  COLLECTED 
TABLE  XI 

STATISTICAL  DATA,  BOROUGH  OF  QUEENS 


Ward 

Location 

Towns 

Area  in 
square 
miles 

Condition  of  surveys  at  time  of  consolidation 

First  .  .  . 

Long  Island  City  .... 

Hunters  Point 

Street  systems  and  grades  established 

Blissville 

Dutch  Kills 

Ravenswood 

Astoria 

Steinway 

Total  of  Ward.. 

7.4 

Second.  . 

Newtown  Township.  . 

Ridgewood 

Nothing 

Melvina 

Woodside 

Newtown 

Corona 

Middle  Village 

Maspeth 

Laurel  Hill 

Glendale 

Total  of  Ward.. 

22.0 

Third..  .  . 

Flushing  Township.  . 

Flushing 

Few  inefficient  maps  of  little  engineering  value 

College  Point 

Whitestone 

Bayside 

Total  of  Ward.. 

30.5 

Fourth  .  . 

Jamaica  Township.  .  . 

Jamaica 

Contour  and  grade  map  of  Jamaica  village  only 

Woodhavcn 

Queens 

Richmond  Hill 

Hollis 

Springfield 

Total  of  Ward.. 

48.1 

The  East  River  Entrance  to  the  Harlem  River.     A  10-foot  sewer  discharges  under  the  pier  on  the  left.     To  the  right 

is  one  of  the  City's  recreation  piers 


The  Harlem  River      By  the  year  1940  this  river  will  receive  the  sewage  of  more  than  one  and  one-third  million  people 


SEWERAGE  OF  QUEENS 
TABLE  XI— Continued 


281 


Ward 

Location 

Towns 

Area  in 
square 
miles 

Condition  of  surveys  at  time  of  consolidation 

Fifth.  .  .  . 

Rockaway  Park 
Arverne 
Edgemere 
Far  Rockaway 
Total  of  Ward.. 

9.3 

Nothing 

Grand  Total 

117.3 

Dry  land           

104.9 

12.4 

Land  under  wat< 

jr  

Froru  1902  to  1904  a  number  of  trunk  combined  systems  were  planned  in  re- 
sponse to  popular  demands;  but  as  it  soon  became  evident  that  the  construction  of 
sewers  of  the  enormous  size  required  for  some  of  the  sparsely  settled  suburban  dis- 
tricts would  involve  expenditures  so  large  as  to  be  all  but  prohibitive,  the  Board 
of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  urged  that  expert  studio's  be  made  of  the  whole 
territory.  Consequently,  in  June,  1907,  Mr.  Rudolph  Hering  was  asked  to  advise 
the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  on  various  sewerage  plans,  and  his  ser- 
vices in  similar  connections  were  also  made  available  to  the  Borough  Presidents 
and  to  their  sewerage  engineers.  Investigations  and  recommendcitions  were  made  by 
Mr.  Hering  regarding  the  existing  sewage  disposal  plants  and  the  drainage  plans  in 
Queens. 

Bureau,  of  Sewers.  The  Bureau  of  Sewers  is  organized  similarly  to  that  of 
Brooklyn.  The  Superintendent  of  the  Bureau  has  direct  supervision  of  the  main- 
tenance of  the  sewers  and  the  disposal  plants.  The  Chief  Engineer  or  Engineer  in 
Charge,  as  he  is  technically  called,  has  charge  of  the  design,  construction  and  inspec- 
tion of  all  new  work  and  the  making  up  of  the  assessment  rolls.  The  maintenance  de- 
partment consults  the  engineers  for  repair  work  of  any  magnitude.  A  movement  is 
planned  to  reorganize  and  unify  the  departments  by  having  the  heads  of  the  various 
bureaus  report  directly  and  frequently  to  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works. 

The  Superintendent  of  Sewers  and  his  foremen  are  appointed;  the  engineering 
corps  is  under  civil  service  regulations.  It  consisted  in  1908  of  the  following: 

1  Chief  Engineer,  7  Assistant  Engineers,    2    Transitmen,    6   Draftsmen,   1 
Draftsman's  Helper,  2  Rodmen. 


282  DATA   COLLECTED 

Au  appropriation  of  $17,000  was  apportioned  for  studying  various  drainage  prob- 
lems in  1909,  but  heretofore  the  force  has  been  too  small  to  do  more  than  keep  up  with 
local  problems.  In  consequence  the  records  of  the  system  in  Queeus  are  incomplete. 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Old  Sewers.  All  the  old  sewers  were  designed  as  combined  sewers  except  those  in 
the  towns  of  Jamaica,  Elmhurst  and  Far  Rockaway.  Many  of  the  smaller  ones  were 
privately  built  by  plumbers  and  have  all  kinds  of  grades  and  alignments.  The  larger 
sewers  were  generally  built  of  brick  and  the  smaller  ones  of  vitrified  pipe.  In  recent 
years  private  construction  under  the  special  provision  of  the  Charter  has  been  car- 
ried on  in  the  Ridgewood  territory.  Some  of  these  plans  do  not  conform  to  the  ac- 
cepted drainage  plans  and  at  some  future  time  the  property  owners  will  be  called  on 
for  further  assessments  to  duplicate  lines  they  are  now  using.  Complete  records  of 
all  sewers  and  basins  do  not  exist,  but  the  Bureau  is  securing  the  location  of  old  ones 
as  fast  as  possible  with  the  limited  force  available.  It  is  reported  that  in  White- 
stone  and  Bayside  a  number  of  sewer  manhole  heads  were  buried  when  the  roads 
were  graded  and  improved  and  as  no  records  or  plans  of  these  sewers  are  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  the  full  extent  of  these  systems  is  unknown. 

Design.  The  formulae  used  for  determining  the  sizes  of  the  sewers  are  given  on 
pages  89  and  90,  but  they  are  not  adhered  to  strictly  in  working  out  the  various 
problems  as  other  local  factors  are  usually  also  considered.  It  is  the  intention  to  take 
up  a  study  of  the  rainfall  and  run-off  this  season  to  determine  the  variations  due  to 
the  high  ridge  of  hills  running  through  the  the  borough. 

It  has  been  necessary  to  rely  upon  the  records  in  the  other  boroughs  and  in  other 
cities  heretofore.  The  Brooklyn-Queens  interborough  sewer  in  Myrtle  and  St.  Nich- 
olas avenues  is  said  to  have  been  designed  to  take  care  of  its  whole  drainage  area  at 
its  maximum  rate  of  run-off. 

A  number  of  maps  in  the  Bureau's  keeping  show  the  various  drainage  districts 
on  a  scale  of  200  feet  to  the  inch,  but  one  map  showing  the  whole  borough  is  not  avail- 
able. The  layout  of  streets  and  street  grades  has  been  carried  forward  without  re- 
gard, in  many  cases,  to  drainage  necessities. 


SEWERAGE  OF  QUEENS 


283 


TABLE  XII 

THE  LOCATION  AND  SIZES  OF  THE  SEWER  OUTLETS  IN  THE  BOROUGH  OF  QUEENS 


Location 

Point  of  Discharge 

Size,  or  Equiv. 
Circular  Diameter 

Remarks 

Newtown  creek  '  .  .  . 

IG'O" 

Greenpoint  avenue      ....        

it            it 

24" 

Storm  water 

Pearsall  street                                       

tt            n 

24" 

tt         n 

n            tt 

4'2i"x3'3" 

ft                 a 

24" 

8th  street 

East  river 

4'2j"x3'3" 

tt        n 

4'2|"x3'3" 

n            tt 

7'8"x7'7" 

tt          tt 

2'30" 

Webster  avenue   

tt            tt 

14'0" 

tt           tt 

16'0"\7'0" 

Main  street 

ft          tt 

f            3'0" 

Wardell  street  

Hell   Gate 

{        3'6"x2'8" 
12" 

Hoyt  avenue  

tt        tt 

8'0"xl2'0" 

tt        n 

18" 

Potter  avenue 

tt        n 

15" 

ft        tt 

18" 

Wolcott  avenue 

tt        tt 

]5" 

Hoffman  boulevard  

Elmhurst  Disposal  Plant 

5'0" 

West  street  and  Jamaica  road 

9'0" 

Broadway    

tt           tt 

f             18" 

Grove  street  

tt           tt 

1              24" 
5'0" 

Myrtle  avenue  

tt           tt 

24" 

5th  avenue  

5'0" 

College  Point  

24" 

N.  28th  street  

18" 

14th  avenue  

24" 

Broadway  

Little  Neck  bay 

Leland  avenue  and  Remsen  avenue  

Far  Rockaway 

10" 

Old  (So.)  road  and  road  to  Bergen  Island.  .  .  . 

Jamaica 

2'9" 

284  DATA   COLLECTED 

Elevation  of  Outlets.  Almost  without  exception  the  outlets  of  the  Queens  sewers 
are  submerged  at  high  tide.  If  the  grades  are  flat  the  tide  may  back  up  a  mile ;  e.  g.,  the 
Webster  avenue  14-foot  combined  trunk  sewer,  which,  in  consequence  of  its  flat  grade, 
has  about  2  feet  to  3  feet  of  sediment  on  the  bottom ;  but  as  this  is  not  taxed  to  prob- 
ably half  its  capacity  no  flooding  has  occurred.  Submerged  sewers  are  designed  for  the 
pressures  they  must  withstand.  At  College  Point  a  30-inch  wooden  barrel  sewer  out- 
lets 1,100  feet  from  shore  and  16  feet  below  mean  low  tide. 

Materials.  In  the  last  three  years  all  the  large  sewers  have  been  built  of  reinforced 
concrete.  The  Queens-Brooklyn  interborough  sewer,  draining  the  Ridgewood  area,  is 
of  reinforced  concrete  in  Queens  and  concrete  invert  and  brick  arch  in  Brooklyn. 

Ventilation.  It  is  the  intention  to  use  perforated  manhole  covers  and  to  build  all 
sewers  with  the  roof  in  an  unbroken  line,  so  that  air  may  sweep  through  from  manhole 
to  manhole. 

Flush  Tanks.  There  is  one  flush  tank  in  the  system,  but  it  is  now  shut  off.  The  use 
of  flush  tanks  is  not  advocated  by  the  local  authorities  in  Queens. 

NEW  SKWERS 

Area  North  of  Newtown  Creek.  The  area  north  of  Newtown  creek  between  the  Long 
Island  Railroad  and  the  cemeteries  used  to  drain  into  Newtown  creek  prior  to  the  regu- 
lations prohibiting  the  emptying  of  house  sewage  into  that  stream.  A  new  sewer  to 
carry  up  to  four  times  the  dry  weather  flow  of  this  section  has  been  built  under  the 
Long  Island  Railroad  tracks  and  carried  to  the  East  river. 

Ridgewood  Area.  The  Ridgewood  area  and  adjoining  areas  of  about  4,600  acres,  are 
drained  by  the  so-called  Brooklyn  and  Queens  interborough  sewer.  It  has  an  outlet 
diameter  of  15  feet  6  inches,  emptying  at  the  head  of  Newtown  creek  in  Brooklyn. 
The  dry  weather  flow  of  this  sewer  is  carried  througli  the  Brooklyn  sewers  to  an  outlet 
into  the  East  river  at  South  Fifth  street.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  5,700  feet  of  tliis 
sewer  in  Brooklyn  was  over  half  a  million  dollars. 

Flushing.  A  large  9-foot  6-inch  trunk  combined  sewer  draining  the  Ingleside  area 
of  about  1,200  acres  was  constructed  with  a  storm  water  outlet  into  a  tributary  of 
Flushing  creek,  but  provision  for  a  disposal  plant  was  not  carried  out  as  originally 
intended  and  a  temporary  outlet  into  the  creek  was  proposed  and  rejected.  It  has 
been  proposed  that  a  trunk  sewer  be  constructed  to  take  the  whole  of  Flushing's  sani- 
tary sewage  and  discharge  it  into  Flushing  bay  at  the  foot  of  Myrtle  street  for  a  limited 
period,  carrying  it  ultimately  into  deep  water  off  College  Point.  There  is  now  on 
foot  a  plan  to  treat  the  dry  weather  flow  near  Flushing  creek  at  the  foot  of  Fowler 
street,  the  storm  water  to  overflow  at  other  points,  further  back,  into  the  creek. 


8EWEEAGE  OF  QUEENS  285 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  SEWERAGE 

The  following  is  a  brief  statement,  extracted  from  an  article  by  Alberto  Schreiner, 
C.  E.,  in  the  1908  Proceedings  of  the  Municipal  Engineers  of  The  City  of  New  York, 
respecting  the  sewerage  systems  in  Queens. 

FIRST  WARD,  LOXG  ISLAND  CITY 

EXISTING  SEWERS 

Hunters  Point  System.  Was  largely  built  in  1876;  its  capacity  is  now 
becoming  insufficient. 

Harris  Avenue  Trunk  Sewer.  Built  in  1896,  it  is  7  feet  8  inches  by  7  feet 
7  inches  in  size;  half  of  the  drainage  system  is  still  undeveloped. 

Webster  Avenut  Trunk  Sewer.  Completed  in  1903,  this  sewer  has  a  twin 
horseshoe  section  equivalent  to  a  circular  section  14  feet  in  diameter.  Numbers 
of  its  lateral  branches  have  been  built. 

Broadway  System.  Trunk  outlet  built  in  1896;  size,  16  feet  by  7  feet.  The 
sewer  is  in  poor  condition.  The  system  of  laterals  or  collecting  sewers  is 
nearly  complete. 

Hoyt  Avenue  Scircr.     Size,  8  feet  by  12  feet;  system  nearly  complete. 

PROPOSED   SEWERS 

Theodore  Street.  Size,  12  feet  6  inches;  trunk  sewer  to  discharge  at  the 
bulkhead  line,  3-foot  6-inch  dry  weather  outlet  to  discharge  at  pierhead,  1,400 
feet  distant,  in  Bowery  bay. 

Blissville  Section.  The  sewage  will  require  pumping  to  East  river  under 
Dutch  Kills. 

SECOND  WARD,  NEWTOWN 

Few  sewers  hare  been  built  in  this  section.  The  following  are  the  most  im- 
portant : 

Queens-Brooklyn  Iiitcrborough  Sewer.  Size,  15  feet  6  inches  at  outlet. 
Receives  the  sewage  from  4,500  acres ;  dry  weather  flow  to  be  diverted,  at  Scott 
avenue,  into  Brooklyn  sewer  discharging  into  East  river  at  South  Fifth  street. 
Storm  water  to  overflow  into  Newtown  creek. 

Hoffman  Boulevard  to  Elmhurst  Disposal  Plant.  Size,  5  feet,  Will  need 
to  pump  the  effluent  at  some  future  date. 

THIRD  WARD,  FLUSHING 

Sewers  in  old  section  of  Flushing  inadequate  and  should  be  rebuilt. 

Inglcside  Section.  Area,  1,200  acres.  Trunk  sewer,  9  feet  6  inches  diameter, 
building.  Dry  weather  flow  to  be  treated. 

College  Point.  Efficient  combined  system.  Thirty-inch  wooden  flume  out- 
let extends  1,100  feet  out  from  shore  in  16  feet  of  water  at  mean  tide. 

Several  smaller  sewers  discharge  on  flats  and  produce  nuisances. 

Several  new  sewers  are  planned  at  College  Point  with  outlets  to  deep  water; 
certain  existing  outlets  to  be  extended  to  deep  water. 


286 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Whitestone  and  Bayside.    Have  a  few  small  sewers ;  manhole  heads,  in  most 
cases,  buried  by  street  grading. 

FOURTH  WARD,  JAMAICA 

Separate  system  of  sewers  covers  about  10  per  cent,  of  whole-  area.     Dry 
weather  flow  treated  at  antiquated  disposal  plant. 


FIFTH  WARD,  THE  EOCKAWAYS 
SEPARATE  SYSTEM 

Far  Rockaway.  Sewage  is  pumped  up  from  sewers  to  disposal  plant,  anti- 
quated and  inefficient. 

Arverne.  Outlet  sewer  ending  on  beach  about  half  way  between  high  and 
low  water.  Sewage  also  discharged  into  canal  heading  out  from  harbor. 

Remaining  Towns.  No  systems  of  sewerage  yet.  Sewage  will  require  pump- 
ing as  ground  is  but  5  feet  or  6  feet  above  mean  high  water.  Winter  population 
of  district  10,000,  summer  population  150,000. 

Extent  of  the  System  The  number  of  miles  of  sewers  built  in  Queens,  each  year, 
the  number  of  catch  basins  built  and  of  permits  issued  for  connections  are  shown  in 
Table  XIII. 

TABLE  XIII 

GROWTH  OF  SEWER  SYSTEM  IN  QUEENS 


Year 

Sewer  Mileage 

Number  of  Basing 

Permits 
For  Connections 

Built  During 
Year 

Total  to  Date 

Built   During 
Year 

Total  to  Date 

1897 

9.125 
3.51 

6.64 
8.50 
3.90 

142 

48 

19 
88 
100 

1,302 
1,492 

1,700* 

149 

779 
975 

1898  

133.000 

1899 

1900  

145.635 

1901  

J902 

ions 

1904 

100  ^ 

IQAA 

1QO7 

1908  

191.* 

*  The  Board  of  Estimate  report. 


SEWERAGE  OF  QUEENS 


287 


The  following  table  shows  the  number  and  estimated  costs  of  sewers  authorized  to 
be  built  annually  in  1902  to  1908,  inclusive : 


Date 

Number 

Costs 

District  Shown  on 
Drainage  Maps 

j902                                

16 

$45,932  50 

1 

J903                                

28 

122,421  00 

2 

1904                            

24 

196,670  00 

2 

1905                                

28 

406,500  00 

6 

1906                            

29 

648,800  00 

2 

1907                            

29 

129,400  00 

16 

1908                                

20 

91,600  00 

13 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Inspections.  The  inspections  of  sewers  and  basins  is  done  by  the  foremen  of  the 
cleaning  and  other  maintenance  gangs.  Eegular  systematic  inspections  are  not  made. 

Cleaning.  The  frequency  with  which  basins  are  cleaned  varies  from  every  two 
weeks  to  every  two  years.  There  are  about  1,700  reported  by  the  Board  of  Estimate, 
but  no  records  exist  of  the  exact  number.  In  1907  6,141  basins  were  cleaned,  which 
corresponds  to  an  average  of  over  31/2  times  per  year  per  basin.  The  costs  are  neces- 
sarily high  in  Queens  on  account  of  the  distances  to  be  covered.  No  machines  or  pumps 
are  used  or  thought  feasible  to  aid  in  cleaning  basins.  Steam  pipes  do  not  exhaust 
generally  into  the  sewers,  although  a  cloud  of  it  was  noticed  on  November  4  coming 
from  the  manholes  over  a  sewer  in  Freeman  avenue,  between  Vernon  avenue  and  the 
river.  This  would  prevent  the  inspection  and  cleaning  of  this  particular  sewer. 

Street  cleanings,  to  some  extent,  go  into  the  basins.  No  attempt  is  made  to  enforce 
the  ordinance  against  the  practice.  The  streets  in  Long  Island  City  are  kept  reason- 
ably well  cleaned.  As  snow  is  not  cleared  off,  as  a  general  thing,  very  little  goes  into 
the  basins. 

Disposal  of  Cleanings.  The  grit  and  other  materials  removed  from  the  basins  and 
sewers  are  generally  dumped  on  vacant  lots.  No  attempt  is  made  to  bury  or  cover 
with  lime,  or  to  treat  it  otherwise  to  prevent  nuisance. 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

TIDAL  DISCHARGE 

Long  Island  City.  The  sewage  of  the  Long  Island  City  district  all  discharges  into 
East  river  and  Newtown  creek.  It  is  stated  that  all  the  dry  weather  flow  of  sewage 


288  DATA   COLLECTED 

is  diverted  from  the  sewers  draining  into  Newtown  creek;  under  the  law  no  sewage  can 

• 

be  discharged  therein. 

Ridgeivood.  The  sewage  of  the  Ridgewood  district,  which  is  drained  by  the  large 
sewer  on  Myrtle  avenue,  with  an  outlet  into  the  head  of  Newtown  creek,  is  diverted 
into  the  South  Fifth  street  sewer  of  Brooklyn  and  discharged  into  the  East  river  near 
the  Williamsburg  Bridge.  The  storm  water  from  this  district  goes  into  Newtown  creek. 

Elmhurst.  The  sewage  of  the  Elmhurst  district  back  of  Long  Island  City,  goes 
to  a  badly  located  disposal  plant,  inefficiently  operated,  the  effluent  from  which  dis- 
charges into  a  small  branch  of  Flushing  creek. 

Flushing  District.  The  sewage  of  Flushing,  College  Point  and  Bayside  is  dis- 
charged into  tide  water. 

Jamaica.  The  Jamaica  sewage  goes  to  a  point  south  of  that  city  for  treatment, 
and  thence  into  Bergen  creek  and  Jamaica  bay. 

DISPOSAL  PLANTS 

Jamaica.  The  Jamaica  disposal  plant,  put  in  operation  in  1903,  is  of  the  Powers 
chemical  precipitation  type,  similar  in  principle  to  those  of  Brooklyn.  After  receiving 
its  dose  of  lime  and  chemicals  the  sewage  travels  some  1,500  feet  through  the  six 
settling  channels.  Sludge,  amounting  to  about  40  tons  monthly,  is  removed  to  a  de- 
pression near  the  plant,  from  which  it  flows  over  on  private  property  and  causes  more 
or  less  nuisance. 

The  effluent  from  the  precipitation  tanks,  according  to  1907  Board  of  Health  re- 
port, showed  putrescence  in  less  than  12  hours. 

The  plant,  was  examined  by  Mr.  Rudolph  Hering  in  1908,  who,  from  analyses  of 
the  raw  and  treated  sewage,  found  that  about  one-third  of  the  organic  matter  and  two- 
thirds  of  the  inorganic  and  suspended  matters  were  being  removed.  Too  litle  lime 
was  being  used  and  the  use  of  perchloride  of  iron  had  largely  been  discontinued  on  ac- 
count of  cost.  It  was  suggested  that  lime  and  copperas  be  used  in  warm  weather,  dis- 
pensing with  chemicals  in  winter,  as  the  process  of  purification  was  largely  due  to 
sedimentation.  The  capacity  of  the  plant  is  supposed  to  be  1,000,000  gallons  daily, 
but  from  the  pump  records  an  average  of  1,500,000  gallons  daily  was  being  treated 
during  the  year  of  1907.  Fourteen  men  are  reported  as  being  employed  at  this  plant. 

Far  Rockaway.  The  Far  Rockaway  chemical  precipitation  plant  is  of  the  Powers 
type  and  similar  in  design  to  the  Jamaica  plant.  It  was  put  in  operation  in  1890. 
In  the  summer  time  the  plant  is  very  much  overloaded  and  is  both  antiquated  and  in- 
efficient. The  average  amounts  pumped  are  recorded  as  about  600,000  gallons  daily. 
Lime  is  mixed  with  the  entering  sewage,  which  must  traverse  through  four  chambers 
having  a  combined  length  of  300  feet.  The  sludge  is  disinfected  and  used 


A    Sewer  Discharging   from   New   York   City,  Borough  of  Queens.     Many  New   York  sewers   discharge   their  contents 

above  low  water  mark 


Sewer  Outlet  in  the  Harlem  River.     With  the  growth  of  population,  rapidly  increasing  quantities  of  sewage  are  being 

discharged  into  the  Harlem  river 


SEWERAGE  OF  QUEENS 


289 


for  filling  low  land  near  the  plant.  The  disposal  of  the  sludge  here  creates  more  or 
less  nuisance  and  it  has  been  recommended  that  a  channel  be  dredged  to  the  bay  so 
that  it  may  be  removed  to  sea  in  barges.  In  1907  the  State  Board  of  Health  found 
the  effluent  discharged  color  from  methylene  blue  in  52  hours.  Undoubtedly  this  good 
showing  is  not  the  usual  summer  condition.  Analyses  made  on  November  30,  1904,  by 
George  A.  Soper  showed  that  the  treatment  was  unsatisfactory.  There  were  40  per 
cent,  more  bacteria  in  the  effluent  than  in  the  raw  sewage,  the  number  in  the  latter 
being  5,240,000.  The  imperfectly  gurified  sewage  from  this  plant,  discharged  into 
Jamaica  bay,  contaminated  oysters  and  clams  and  produced  a  number  of  cases  of  ty- 
phoid fever.  See  Soper,  Medical  News,  N.  Y.,  February  11,  1905. 

The  following  table  gives  data  concerning  the  chemicals  used  and  the  number  of 
gallons  of  sewage  pumped  during  the  years  1906  and  1907  at  the  Far  Rockaway  and 
Jamaica  disposal  plants. 

TABLE  XIV 

CHEMICALS  USED  AT  FAB  ROCKAWAY  AND  JAMAICA  DISPOSAL  PLANTS 


Far  Rockaway 

Jamaica 

1906 

1907 

1906 

1907 

Vitriol  (H,  S04)  pounds  

1,600 
6,405 
2.1 
1,520 
.51 
1,690 
.56 
692 
4.6 
211 
.58 

1,680 
6,953 
1.7 
1,440 
.35 
1,600 
.39 
827 
4.1 
285 
.78 

650 
3,244 
.61 
700 
.13 
700 
.13 
257 
.96 
375 
1.03 

635 
3,521 
.45 
500 
.06 
500 
.06 
249 
.6 
542 
1.48 

Perchloride  of  iron,  pounds  

Perchloride  of  iron  grs.  per  gal  
Manganese,  pounds.. 

Manganese,  grs  per  gal 

Salt,  pounds  

Salt,  grs.  per  gal  

Limp,  harrfilp,  ,  .  ,       ,     , 

Lime,  grs.  per  gal  

Total  million  gals,  pumped 

Average  million  gals,  daily  

Elmhurst.  The  Elmhurst  plant  was  located  at  a  topographically  unsuitable  place 
for  the  reason  that  this  site  was  dedicated  to  the  City  by  owners  of  property  in  the 
town  of  Elmhurst,  a  section  perhaps  10  blocks  square. 

The  Elmhurst  plant,  which  has  a  rated  capacity  of  1,000,000  gallons  daily  was 
built  in  1905  from  the  plans  of  Mr.  Chas.  Hart  after  the  process  of  the  International 
Sewage  Disposal  Co.  of  Boston.  It  consists  of  a  pump,  pump  well,  four  concrete 
settling  tanks,  a  flush  tank  and  three  open  sand  filters  with  a  combined  area  of  one 


290  DATA    COLLECTED 

acre.  The  State  Board  of  Health  found  the  filters  out  of  service  at  the  time  of  two  visits 
to  the  plant,  the  tanks  only  being  used.  The  effluent  customarily  flows  away  from 
the  plant  through  accidental  cracks  in  the  cement  flooring.  The  question  of  payment 
for  the  plant  is  still  under  litigation.  In  connection  with  the  testimony  taken  meas- 
urements were  made  of  the  actual  amounts  of  sewage  and  of  ground  water  flowing  to 
the  plant  and  there  was  found  so  much  of  the  latter  that  the  dilution  is  said  to  give 
practically  sufficient  purification  without  further  treatment. 

Supervision.  The  three  disposal  plants  are  operated  by  the  Maintenance  Depart- 
ment of  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  under  the  direction  of  the  Superintendent;  to  be  tech- 
nically and  properly  operated  they  should  be  under  the  Chief  Engineer's  supervision. 
No  doubt  the  lack  of  a  technical  head  may  account  for  much  of  the  adverse  criticism 
against  all  of  these  plants. 

COMPLAINTS  AND  NUISANCES  FROM  THE  DISPOSAL  METHODS  IN  USE 
Whitestone.  Emphatic  complaints  from  the  people  of  Whitestone  endorsed  by  the 
Board  of  Health,  have  been  made  against  the  discharging  of  sewage  into  a  small 
fresh  water  stream  in  the  vicinity  of  Powells  cove.  A  plan  for  the  extension  of  the 
sewer  into  the  shallow  waters  of  the  cove  was  not  approved  as  a  nuisance  would 
surely  be  caused  thereby. 

Newtown  Creek.  While  it  is  admitted  that  Newtown  creek  is  an  open  sewer  it 
is  said  that  the  pollution  is  due  quite  largely  to  manufacturing  wastes  rather  than 
house  sewage. 

FUTURE  PLANS  OF  THE  LOCAL  AUTHORITIES 

Waterfront  of  Queens.  Queens  has  relatively  but  a  small  water-frontage  from 
which  either  by  legal  restrictions  or  by  reason  of  the  creating  of  local  nuisances  it  is 
permitted  to  discharge  raw  sewage.  This  available  shore  line,  covering  some  21  miles, 
extends  along  the  East  river  from  Newtown  creek  to  Berrian  Island  and  from  College 
Point  to  Whitestone  Point,  excluding  Powells  cove.  The  State  Board  of  Health  has 
ruled  that  the  sewage  going  into  Jamaica  bay  must  be  treated ;  it  is  thought  to  treat  to 
a  non-putrescible  stage  is  sufficient.  To  discharge  untreated  sewage  into  Newtown 
creek  is  prohibited  and  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  has  refused  to 
adopt  plans  for  discharging  into  Bowery  bay  and  Flushing  creek.  The  discharge  into 
Powells  cove  now  causes  a  nuisance.  Little  Neck  bay  is  too  shallow  to  consider  any 
outlets  there  and  no  discharge  would  be  tolerated  off  Rockaway  Beach. 

General  Sewerage  Plans.  Comprehensive  plans  have  not  been  made  for  Queens, 
though  sadly  needed  by  the  Bureau  of  Sewers  in  order  to  permit  properly  designing 
the  independent  works  of  rapidly  growing  sections  in  a  manner  to  conform  to  future 
growth  and  construction  work  for  the  borough  in  general. 


SEWERAGE  OF  QUEENS  291 

Suggestions  by  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment.  The  reports  of  the  Chief 
Engineer  of  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  for  1906  and  1908  show  in  the 
following  extracts  and  notes  the  general  policy  in  his  mind  concerning  the  sewer  sys- 
tem of  Queens : 

"  This  office  has  consistently  urged  the  preparation  of  plans  which  will  avoid  the 
necessity  of  additional  plants  for  sewage  treatment  by  carrying  the  raw  sewage  to 
points  Avhere  it  can  be  discharged  into  the  deep  waters  of  the  East  river.  In  districts 
on  the  south  side  of  Long  Island,  where  the  outlets  must  necessarily  be  in  the  shal- 
low water  of  Jamaica  bay,  treatment  is  necessary  and  is  required  by  the  State  Board 
of  Health,  but  on  the  north  side  it  is  possible  to  secure  outlets  in  the  East  river  which 
will  be  unobjectionable  for  years  to  come." 

Long  Island  City.  An  intercepting  trunk  sewer  to  discharge  into  Hell  Gate  at 
the  foot  of  Winthrop  street  is  suggested  for  the  sewerage  of  the  area  between  Long 
Island  City  and  Flushing  creek,  as  well  as  for  a  portion  of  Long  Island  City  for  which 
lias  been  planned  a  sewer  to  empty  into  Bowery  bay  east  of  Berrian  Island  at  the  foot 
of  Theodore  street. 

The  Elmliurst  disposal  plant  would  be  abandoned  under  this  plan. 

The  Bureau  of  Sewers  contends  that  this  intercepting  trunk  sewer  plan  is  too  ex- 
pensive to  lie  carried  out  at  the  present  time.  While  agreeing  that  discharging  sewage 
into  Bowery  bay  may  possibly  cause  a  nuisance  in  the  future  it  is  believed  by  the 
Bureau  of  Sewers  that  the  territory  drained  will  be  developed  at  a  much  more  rapid 
rate  if  not  burdened  with  too  great  expense  for  sewerage  at  present,  and  that  when 
more  fully  occupied  the  improvements  can  be  more  easily  carried  out. 

Richmond  Hill  and  Woodhaven.  A  separate  system  of  sewers  delivering  to  the 
Jamaica  disposal  plant  has  been  authorized  for  a  400-acre  section  of  Richmond  Hill. 
A  similar  plan  for  1,700  acres  in  the  Woodhaven  district,  extending  from  Richmond 
Hill  to  the  Brooklyn  borough  line  has  also  been  approved.  A  disposal  plant  was  pro- 
posed at  the  head  of  Willow  creek.  Later  developments  respecting  the  treatment  of 
Jamaica  bay  water-front  indicate  that  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  any  of  these  im- 
provements would  fit  in  with  waterfront  plans.  Plans  are  now  being  made  to  keep 
down  present  expenditures  by  designing  combined  sewers  for  present  needs  only,  dis- 
charging the  dry  weather  flow  through  Stanley  street  in  a  6-foot  sewer  to  the  Jamaica 
disposal  plant,  and  bypassing  the  storm  water  flow  down  Panama  street  through  a 
twin  sewer  with  equivalent  diameter  of  12  feet.  This  will  empty  into  a  ditch  8  feet 
by  36  feet,  5,600  feet  long.  One  of  the  difficult  engineering  features  will  be  a  syphon 
under  the  water  supply  aqueduct,  which  must  be  carried  over  the  ditch  on  girders. 


292  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  Rockaways.  The  whole  sewer  system  of  the  Rockaways  must  be  reconstructed 
in  the  near  future.  Trunk  sewers  extending  from  end  to  end  of  the  shore  line,  with 
pumping  stations  to  lift  the  sewage  disposal  plants  is  the  only  solution  proposed  by 
the  local  authorities. 

Jamaica  Bay  Improvement.  One  of  the  most  important  public  improvements 
planned  by  the  City  of  New  York  is  the  creation  of  a  great  harbor  in  Jamaica  bay,  the 
navigation  interests  of  the  city  demanding  greater  dockage  facilities  than  can  be  pro- 
vided in  the  waters  around  the  present  harbor.  The  project  has  passed  the  preliminary 
stage  and  the  way  appears  open  for  its  execution,  the  Commissioner  of  Docks  and 
Ferries  having  been  directed  by  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  to  prepare 
plans  therefor. 

It  is  recommended  that  a  channel  1,500  feet  wide  and  30  feet  deep  be  dredged 
through  Eockaway  inlet  with  a  main  channel  following  the  western  and  northern  sec- 
tions of  the  bay  for  a  width  of  1,000  feet  and  a  depth  of  30  feet.  The  report  of  Col. 
John  G.  D.  Knight,  United  States  Corps  of  Engineers,  under  date  of  January  30,  1909, 
gives  the  estimated  cost  of  deepening  the  Rockaway  inlet  and  the  main  channels,  with 
the  necessary  protection  works  as  $8,610,050 ;  the  cost  of  development  as  a  harbor  will 
be  in  addition  to  this. 

The  creation  of  an  important  harbor  at  Jamaica  bay  increases  the  difficulties  of 
providing'  adequate  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  facilities  for  the  portions  of  the 
Boroughs  of  Brooklyn  and  Queens  having  water  frontage  along  the  bay. 

Recommendation — The  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  recommends  that  im- 
mediate consideration  be  given  to  improved  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  for  this  dis- 
trict in  conjunction  with  the  elaboration  of  the  harbor  plans,  so  that  when  the  latter 
improvements  are  carried  out  the  sewerage  works  will  be  suitable  for  the  future  de- 
velopments. 

RICHMOND 

GBNKEAL  FEATURKS  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics.  The  Borough  of  Richmond  includes  the 
whole  of  Staten  Island  which  has  an  area  of  57.2  square  miles.  Its  greatest  length  is 
13.6  miles  and  greatest  width  7.5  miles.  It  lies  about  5  miles  to  the  southwest  of  Man- 
hattan and  is  separated  from  the  New  Jersey  shore  by  the  Arthur  Kill.  Its  northern 
edge  forms  the  southern  limit  of  the  Upper  bay  and  bounds  the  Narrows,  or  entrance 
to  the  Upper  and  the  Lower  bays.  The  Arthur  Kill  has  a  minimum  depth  of  13  feet 
and  minimum  width  of  about  500  feet;  the  Kill  von  Kull  has  a  24-foot  channel  into 
Newark  bay  and  a  total  width  between  piers  of  about  1,500  feet. 

The  island  is  kite  shaped  with  a  backbone  of  serpentine  extending  from  St.  George 
southwest  about  one-half  the  length  of  the  island.  Approximately  80  per  cent,  of  the 


SEWERAGE  OF  RICHMOND  293 

wbole  surface  of  the  island  is  covered  by  the  terminal  moraine  of  the  continental 
glacier  rising  in  hills  and  ridges  from  200  to  nearly  400  feet  above  the  sea  and  com- 
posed of  the  typical  boulder  clay,  soft  and  sandy,  with  rather  more  sand  than  clay. 
The  surface  is  impervious  and  a  number  of  small  lakes  are  scattered  over  the  high 
lauds. 

The  drainage  districts  as  a  consequence  of  the  topography  are  of  various  sizes 
extending  from  the  shore  line  back  to  the  ridge,  and  in  general  the  limits  are  the  limits 
of  the  natural  watersheds  of  the  small  streams  originally  draining  this  territory.  The 
more  thickly  settled  portion  of  the  island  occupies  a  belt  about  a  mile  wide  along  the 
north  and  east  shores  from  Holland  Hook  to  Fort  Wadsworth. 

Distribution  of  Population.  The  population  of  the  borough  in  1905  was  72,939; 
the  principal  center  being  on  a  strip  about  a  mile  wide,  more  or  less,  extending  from 
Fort  Wadsworth  to  Holland  Hook.  The  remainder  of  the  island  is  rather  sparsely 
populated  with  the  exception  of  a  few  villages  and  towns ;  the  average  population  for 
the  whole  borough  is  about  2  persons  per  acre. 

The  principal  towns  and  villages  are  New  Brighton,  Tompkiusville,  Stapleton, 
Rosebank,  West  New  Brighton,  Port  Richmond,  Mariners  Harbor,  Morgan  Hills,  Grant 
City,  New  Dorp  and  Tottenville. 

The  manufacturing  interests,  which  are  extensive,  are  located  mainly  along  the 
shores  of  Kill  van  Kull  and  Arthur  Kill.  The  shellfish  interests,  which  are  large,  are 
principally  along  the  south  shore,  between  Great  Kills  and  Tottenville.  The  borough 
is  essentially  a  residential  district.  South  Beach  and  Midland  Beach  are  popular  re- 
sorts in  summer. 

The  Bureau  of  Sciccrs.  Under  the  Borough  President  is  a  Commissioner  of  Public 
Works  and  an  Assistant  Commissioner  of  Public  Works.  The  subordinate  departments 
are  a  Bureau  of  Accounts,  Bureau  of  Highways,  Bureau  of  Engineering,  Bureau  of 
Street  Cleaning,  Bureau  of  Sewers  and  Bureau  of  Public  Offices  and  Buildings.  The 
Bureau  of  Engineering  has  two  divisions,  one  of  Construction  and  one  of  Topography. 

The  following  extract  from  the  1907  report  of  the  Borough  President  describes 
the  operation  of  the  organization  with  reference  to  sewers : 

"The  topographical  engineers  survey  districts  and  plan  streets;  the  local 
Board  of  Aldermen  initiates  the  improvements  and  the  Board  of  Estimate 
authorizes  them.  The  construction  engineers  plan  the  improvements  and  handle 
their  execution;  the  Bureau  of  Highways  maintains  the  finished  road  surfaces; 
the  Bureau  of  Sewers  maintains  the  sewers  and  drains;  the  Bureau  of  Street 
Cleaning  removes  and  disposes  of  the  refuse,  house  and  street;  *  *  *  the 
Bureau  of  Accounts  handles  all  the  different  financial  matters  connected  with 
these  operations;  and  the  general  administration  supervises  the  whole." 


294  DATA   COLLECTED    . 

There  are  about  100  technically  trained  men  employed  in  the  various  bureaus. 
These  men  are  so  assigned  as  to  keep  up  the  work  in  each  division  without  surplusage 
in  some  and  insufficiency  in  others.  Sufficient  appropriations  are  made  to  pay  for  ade- 
quate designs,  supervision  and  inspection  of  all  works  undertaken. 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Design.  The  general  policy  now  being  worked  out  is  the  provision  of  trunk  inter- 
cepting combined  sewers  about  one-half  mile  apart  around  the  island.  The  trunk 
sewers  are  designed  with  overflows  for  storm  water  at  the  bulkhead  line,  the  sanitary 
or  dry  weather  flow  being  carried  out  in  a  smaller  pipe  to  the  pierhead  line.  This  plan 
has  been  carried  out  in  districts  Nos.  2,  6,  8,  17,  18  and  19. 

Combined  sewers  with  many  frequently  cleaned  basins  are  considered  best  for  the 
thickly  built  up  portions  of  the  borough;  sanitary  sewers  are  expected  to  answer  in 
less  compact  districts  for  many  years  to  come,  as  the  storm  water  can  travel  on  the  roads 
and  find  outlets  through  natural  drainage  channels,  c.  g.,  in  Port  Kichmond  and  New 
Brighton. 

The  formulae  used  in  designing  the  sewers  are  given  on  pages  89  and  90.  The 
sewers  are  designed  to  take  storms  of  the  so-called  second  magnitude.  Just  how  much 
floAv  the  sewers  would  carry  if  a  slight  head  was  put  upon  them  has  not  been  con- 
sidered, so  that  flooding  due  to  the  extraordinary  storms  coming  once  in  five  years  may 
or  may  not  occur. 

A  continuous  automatic  rain  gage  has  been  in  use  since  September,  1902.  This 
record  shows  that  conditions  on  Staten  Island  are  somewhat  different  from  those  found 
in  Brooklyn  by  the  Department  of  Water  Supply.  Velocity  measurements  of  flow  have 
been  made  in  street  gutters  having  smooth  and  rough  pavements.  From  the  1908 
Board  of  Estimate  report  "  The  determination  of  the  elapsed  time  for  the  surface  flow 
to  reach  the  sewer  and  as  required  for  applying  the  rational  formulae  *  *  *  is 
taken  to  be  that  required  to  traverse  the  gutters  with  an  additional  allowance  of  five 
minutes." 

Sewers.  The  older  swers,  built  before  Staten  Island  became  one  of  the  boroughs 
of  New  York,  were  all  of  vitrified  pipe.  Each  small  district  or  town  put  in  its  own  sys- 
tem and  practically  no  attempt  was  made  to  care  for  anything  but  sanitary  sewage. 
The  watersheds  are  comparatively  small  and  the  need  to  carry  off  storm  water  flows 
other  than  by  natural  channels  or  the  street  gutters  was  not  so  necessary.  The  outlets 
of  all  of  these  sewers  was  at  or  very  near  the  shore  line,  which  became  in  time  the  bulk- 
head line. 


SEWERAGE  OF  RICHMOND  295 

All  of  the  larger  trunk  outlet  sewers  are  being  built  of  reinforced  concrete.  A 
number  are  flattened  out  in  order  to  keep  the  hydraulic  gradient  within  the  sewer. 
There  is  now  under  construction  a  reinforced  concrete  twin  sewer  in  Canal  street, 
Stapleton,  which  occupies  practically  the  whole  street. 

Vitrified  pipe  is  used  for  all  sewers  20  inches  and  less  in  diameter,  while  above  this 
size  brick  or  concrete  may  be  used.  Concrete  pipes  have  not  been  used.  By  the  use  of 
stone  dust  and  screenings  it  has  been  found  feasible  to  construct  basins  that  are  water- 
tight under  outside  pressure  heads  up  to  four  feet. 

Much  of  the  new  work  has  been  carried  on  during  the  last  three  years,  so  that  the 
system  as  it  now  exists  is  of  very  recent  construction.  Mention  may  be  made  here  of 
the  Tompkins  avenue  combined  sewer  in  District  No.  1,  which  has  29  drop  manholes 
in  a  distance  of  7,883  feet,  to  prevent  high  velocities  wearing  out  the  sewer  bottom. 

Catch  Basins.  Catch  basins  to  divert  storm  water  into  the  sewers  are  built  at 
street  intersections. 

Ventilation.  The  sewers  are  very  well  ventilated,  as  there  are  a  great  many  man- 
holes, all  of  which  have  perforated  covers;  most  of  the  sewer  outlets  discharge  above 
ion-  tide  level. 

Flush  Tanks.  Flush  tanks  arc  employed  and  as  a  rule  give  good  service.  They 
are  placed  on  sanitary  sewers  only.  The  1908  report  records  the  cleaning  of  145  at 
an  average  cost  of  61  cents  each. 

Outfalls.  All  the  sewers  in  the  borough  discharge  into  tidewater.  Such  new  out- 
let sewers  as  have  been  built  since  Staten  Island  became  a  borough  of  New  York,  have 
been  so  constructed  that  they  may  at  some  future  time  be  connected  with  a  large  inter- 
ceptor skirting  the  shore  line  and  carrying  its  contents  to  various  sewage  disposal 
plants  or  to  a  tunnel  leading  out  to  sea.  No  definite  disposal  areas  have  been  picked 
out  and  no  plans  have  been  drawn  embodying  any  of  these  ideas. 

The  principal  sewer  outlets,  with  their  respective  watersheds,  diameters,  capac- 
ities, lengths  and  costs  are  given  in  Table  XV. 


296 


DATA   COLLECTED 


TABLE  XV 


OUTLETS  OF  SEWEES  OF  RICHMOND 


Street 

Description 

No.  of 
Bist. 

Acres  in 
Dist. 

Equivalent 
Diam.   Outlet 

Capacity 
Outlet 
c.  f.  p.  s. 

Length  in 
Feet 

Total    Cost 
For  Length 
Reported 

Comb  with  san.  outlet  . 

19 

79 

4'4" 

108 

8,580 

$57,219.12 

Comb,  with  san.  outlet  . 

18 

40 

3'10" 

67 

4,761 

34,776.28 

Houseman  avenue  .  . 

Comb,  with  san.  outlet. 

17 
9 

123 
48 

/    6'0"    \ 
\  12"  san./ 

2'6" 

188 
85 

10,173 
2,126 

69,575.38 
13,099.35 

Hamilton  avenue  .  .  . 

Comb,  with  san.  outlet. 
Comb,  with  san.  outlet. 

'} 

8j 

34 

fl2"  san.] 
{  3'  10"  \ 
[12"  san.J 

76 

5,876 

37,906.61 

Comb  

1 

257 

6'0" 

265 

10,130 

78,046.69 

Elizabeth  street  — 

Comb,  with  san.  outlet  . 
Storm  water  only  

2 
3 

154 

/  e'o"  i 

1  15"  san./ 
9'3" 

259 
895 

8,386 
under 

101,671.90 
construction 

3 

1216 

4'6"  x  6'  6" 

461 

3 

2'4"x3'6" 

old  sewer 

4 

85 

3"6" 

108 

1,805 

5,458.70 

Combined  

5) 

f3'0"x4'0"1 

264 

334 

proposed 

Maple  avenue  

« 

1      6'9"*     j 

Nautilus  street  

Comb,  with  Ban.  outlet. 

6 

367 

6'6" 

494 

5,717 

95,684.41 

3,340 

•Proposed 


SEWERAGE  OF  RICHMOND  297 

Growth  of  System.     The  growth  of  the  sewerage  system  in  Richmond,  year  by 
year,  is  exhibited  in  Table  XVI. 

TABLE  XVI 

GROWTH  OF  SEWER  SYSTEM  IN  RICHMOND 


Year 

Mileage  Sewers  Built  each  Year 

Total  Mileage  Sewers  Built  to  Date 

Costs  of  Sewers 
Built  During 
Year 

Sanitary 

Combined 

Total 

Sanitary 

Combined 

Total 

1897 

.095 

.177 
.030 
.055 
.007 
.013 
.438 
.733 

.278 
.130 
.020 
.150 
.208 
.200 
.140 
.020 
.037 
.524 
1.005 

59.466 
59.744 
59.874 
59.894 
59.949 
59.980 
60.150 
60.235 
60.248 
60.272 
60.358 
60.63 

73.388 
73.666 
73.796 
73.816 
73.966 
74.174 
74.374 
74.514 
74.534 
74.571 
75.095 
76.10 

$3,832 
1,670 
2,052 
36,205 
54,072 
27,164 
19,748 
2,702 
31,137 
164,094 
306,787 

1898 

.278 
.130 
.020 
.055 
.031 
.170 
.085 
.013 
.024 
.086 
.272 

1899 

1900 

13.922 
14.017 
14.194 
14.224 
14.279 
14.286 
14.299 
14.737 
15.47 

1901  

1902  

1903  

1904  

1905         

1906     . 

1907  . 

1908  

From  the  above  table  giving  the  mileage  of  sewers  built  and  costs  since  1898  it  is 
readily  seen  that  much  work  has  been  done  in  recent  years,  with  construction  costs 
in  1907  and  1908  in  excess  of  anything  before  recorded. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  SYSTEM 

Inspection.  It  is  said  that  every  basin  and  manhole  cover  in  the  borough  is 
raised  probably  once  a  week  throughout  the  year.  This  rigid  inspection  enables  the 
Bureau  to  be  the  first  to  find  stoppages,  and,  therefore,  has  prevented  complaints.  No 
suits  for  flooding  have  been  brought  for  over  five  years.  It  is  claimed  that  this  inspec- 
tion system  is  the  most  efficient  of  any  in  this  country. 

Cleaning  Basins.  The  basins  are  cleaned  very  often  and  as  a  time  saver  a  port- 
able centrifugal  pump  driven  by  a  five  horsepower  gasolene  engine  is  used  to  pump 
out  the  water  from  the  basins  to  the  nearest  sewer  manhole.  This  very  greatly  in- 
creases the  efficiency  of  the  basin  cleaning  force. 

No  steam  pipes  exhaust  into  any  of  the  sewers  and  no  trade  wastes  or  gases  pre- 
vent the  inspectors  from  going  down  into  the  manholes  to  inspect  or  clean  the  sewers. 


298  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  street  cleaners  do  not  make  a  practice  of  putting  street  sweepings  or  snow  into 
the  basins.  Violations  of  ordinances  covering  these  matters  are  reported  to  the  Com- 
missioner of  Public  Works,  who  puts  a  stop  to  such  practices  by  orders  to  the  Street 
Cleaning  Bureau.  This  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  Richmond's  centralized  organiza- 
tion. 

In  1907  there  were  10,339  basins  cleaned;  2.05  miles  of  sewers  hand  flushed,  and 
1.10  miles  culverts,  drains,  etc.,  cleaned.  There  are  but  (183  basins,  so  that  each  basin 
was  cleaned  on  an  average  of  fifteen  times  during  the  year. 

Disposal  of  Cleanings.  In  that  territory  within  economical  hauling  distance  of 
the  New  Brighton  Incinerator  sewer  and  basin  cleanings  are  put  through  the  furnace 
at  a  temperature  of  from  1,250  to  2,000  degrees  Fahrenheit,  with  regular  garbage  col- 
lections. The  cleanings  in  other  parts  of  Richmond  are  hauled  to  public  dumps, 
covered  with  lime  or  buried  to  prevent  causing  any  nuisance.  The  dumping  grounds 
are  usually  at  a  low  elevation,  so  that  the  cleanings  serve  as  fill. 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE. 

Tidal  Discharge.  All  the  sewage  of  Richmond  borough  is  discharged  into  the 
neighboring  tidal  waters  without  treatment  or  purification.  The  policy  with  respect 
to  the  newer  sewers  has  been  to  provide  storm  water  overflows  at  the  bulkhead  line, 
and  to  carry  the  outfall  for  the  dry  weather  flow  out  to  the  pierhead  line. 

Complaints.  It  is  said  that  no  complaints  have  been  received  that  the  sewer  out- 
lets caused  a  nuisance  either  from  being  open  and  unsightly  at  the  end  or  by  reason 
of  odors  arising  from  the  discharges.  Nevertheless  both  of  these  conditions  occasion- 
ally occur. 

Burning  Sludge.  It  is  believed  that  the  sludge  can  be  passed  through  incine- 
rators together  with  ordinary  garbage  and  that,  by  installing  sewage  and  garbage 
disposal  plants  at  frequent  intervals  around  the  water-front  the  problem  can  be 
economically  solved  without  creating  a  nuisance  even  within  thickly  settled  districts. 

SECTION   II 

SEWERAGE   OF   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  IN   NEW  YORK  STATE, 
EXCLUSIVE  OF  THE   CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  BRONX  VALLEY 

Historical.  The  most  important  sewerage  project  in  the  New  York  State  metro- 
politan district,  excluding  the  sewerage  of  The  City  of  New  York,  is  that  which 
is  known  as  the  Bronx  valley  sewer.  Its  purpose,  as  its  name  implies,  is  to  pro- 


SEWERAGE  OF  BRONX  VALLEY  299 

vide  a  means  of  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  for  the  towns  in  the  valley  of  the  Bronx 
river  north  of  the  limits  of  the  Borough  of  The  Bronx  of  The  City  of  New  York. 

The  matter  of  constructing  an  outlet  sewer  for  this  district  was  under  considera- 
tion for  several  years  before  reaching  definite  shape.  It  was  investigated  carefully 
and  reported  upon  in  1895  by  the  late  J.  J.  R.  Croes,  Past  President,  Am.  Soc.  C.  E., 
and  by  J.  J.  Fairchild,  C.  E.,  who  recommended  the  construction  of  a  trunk  sewer 
from  the  upper  limits  of  White  Plains  to  a  point  some  miles  below  Mount  Vernon  in 
the  Bronx  valley  and  thence  easterly  across  the  marshes  to  Long  Island  Sound.  This 
plan  was  defeated  and  the  matter  was  dropped  until  the  commission  known  officially 
as  the  Bronx  Valley  Sewerage  Commission,  appointed  in  1904,  took  it  up.  The  Com- 
mission's work  was  made  effective  by  Chapter  646  of  the  Laws  of  1905  of  the  State  of 
New  York  which  provided  for  "  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  a  sanitary  trunk 
sewer  in  the  County  of  Westchester  "  and  provided  "  means  for  the  payment  thereof." 

This  act  is  specific  in  defining  the  area  within  the  different  townships  included  in 
the  districts  to  be  sewered,  in  establishing  the  route  of  the  sewer  and  providng  that 
the  sewage  shall  be  discharged  into  the  Hudson  river. 

Trunk  Sewer.  The  plans  provided  for  the  construction  of  a  concrete  trunk  sewer 
of  circular  cross  section  some  14  miles  in  length  extending  down  the  valley  of  the 
Bronx  river  from  the  northern  limits  of  White  Plains  to  within  300  feet  of  the  bound- 
ary line  between  The  Bronx  and  Westchester  County,  turning  thence  west,  parallel  to 
this  boundary  line  and  passing  under  the  intervening  land  in  a  tunnel  to  the  Hudson 
river  where  it  is  to  terminate  in  two  lines  of  54-inch  cast  iron  pipe  extending  from 
the  portal  of  the  tunnel  to  a  point  in  the  river  500  feet  from  the  shore  and  about  40 
feet  below  the  surface  of  the  river. 

At  its  upper  end,  above  White  Plains,  it  is  to  be  3  feet  4  inches  and,  at  its  lower 
end,  below  Mt.  Vernon,  6  feet  in  diameter.  The  tunnel  section  is  to  have  a  diameter 
of  6  feet  6  inches  at  Washingtonville,  the  point  of  deflection,  increasing  to  8  feet  at 
the  Hudson  river  end,  200  feet  east  of  the  tracks  of  the  New  York  Central  and  Hud- 
son River  Railroad. 

The  sewer  is  intended  to  take  only  house  and  factory  sewage,  to  the  exclusion  of 
storm  water,  and  is  to  intercept  and  convey  to  the  Hudson  river  the  sewage  of  White 
Plains,  Scarsdale,  Tuckahoe,  Bronxville  and  parts  of  Mt.  Vernon  and  Yonkers,  as  well 
as  the  sewage  due  to  natural  increase  in  population  in  these  towns  and  the  develop- 
ment of  new  territory  in  the  vicinity,  for  many  years.  No  provision  was  made  in  the 
plans  for  the  purification  of  the  sewage,  or  for  screening  it,  or  reducing  the  quantity  of 
solids  in  suspension  by  settlement;  it  is  now  stated  that  a  partial  purification,  by 
screening  and  subsidence  is  contemplated. 


300  DATA   COLLECTED 

Topography.  The  valley  of  the  river  is  a  narrow  strip  about  25  miles  long  having 
a  width  of  iy2  to  2y2  miles,  and  lying  in  Westchester  County  and  the  Borough  of 
The  Bronx,  with  its  axis  parallel  to  the  Hudson  river.  The  northerly  18  miles  of  the 
valley  is  in  Westchester  County.  The  watershed  in  Westchester  County  is  about  48 
square  miles,  of  which  12  square  miles  have  been  appropriated  by  The  City  of  New  York 
and  4!/2  square  miles  by  Yonkers  for  their  respective  water  supplies.  The  use  by 
these  cities  of  all  but  the  surplus  rainfall  from  this  appropriated  territory  reduces  the 
summer  flow  of  the  stream  at  the  Westchester  County  line  to  not  over  two  cubic  feet 
per  second,  a  quantity  too  small  to  permit  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  of  the  towns 
on  the  watershed  therein  without  causing  great  offensiveness.  The  river  is  a  tidal 
estuary  as  far  as  the  tannery  dam  at  West  Farms. 

Towns  within  the  District.  The  estimated  population  of  the  villages  and  towns 
within  the  district  was  (1909)  approximately: 

White  Plains 12,800 

Hartsdale 1,700 

Scarsdale   1,800 

Yonkers  5,600 

Tuckahoe 2,300 

Bronxville 1,500 

Mt.  Vernon 4,300 


30,000 

White  Plains  is  completely  sewered,  the  sewage  passing  through  a  plant  intended 
for  its  purification  by  chemical  precipitation,  with  disinfection  of  the  sludge.  Harts- 
dale  has  no  sewers,  nor  has  Scarsdale  or  Yonkers  Park.  Tuckahoe  has  sewers  and  a 
small  purification  plant  put  in  operation  September  1st,  1907,  the  effluent  from  which 
discharges  into  the  Bronx.  Bronxville  also  has  a  sewer  system  and  a  small  plant  for 
treating  the  sewage.  Mt.  Vernon  is  completely  sewered;  25,000  people,  or  95  per  cent. 
of  the  total  population  is  served  by  the  public  sewer  system  discharging  through  three 
separate  outlets  into  the  Hutchinson  canal,  or  Hutchinson  river,  which  flows  into  the 
canal.  About  85  per  cent,  of  the  sewage  of  the  city  is  discharged  into  the  main  out- 
let sewer  which  empties  into  the  upper  end  of  the  canal  at  the  foot  of  Fulton  avenue. 

The  sewage  from  possibly  4,000  to  5,000  people  in  Mt.  Vernon  will  be  diverted  to 
the  Bronx  valley  sewer.  This  population  resides  in  a  district  from  which  the  sewage 
is  now  pumped  across  the  divide  for  discharge  into  Eastchester  creek. 

Over  50  per  cent,  of  the  population  which  the  Bronx  valley  sewer  is  designed  to 
serve  resides  in  White  Plains,  Tuckahoe  and  Bronxville,  the  sewage  of  which  is  now 
subjected  to  partial,  although  not  satisfactory  purification. 


SEWERAGE  OF  BRONX  VALLEY  301 

Opposition.  After  the  publication  of  the  plans  for  the  construction  of  this  sewer 
application  was  made  by  the  Bronx  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  to  the  State  Board 
of  Health  for  permission  to  construct  the  sewer.  In  order  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  the  proposed  works  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission,  in  August, 
1906,  examined  the  plans  on  file  at  the  office  of  the  Commission  at  White  Plains.  On 
November  30th,  1906,  word  was  received  from  the  State  Department  of  Health  that 
a  hearing  would  be  held  on  the  Bronx  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners'  application  on 
December  7th,  1906,  at  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Health  in  Albany.  Two  mem- 
bers of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission,  as  well  as  several  representatives  of 
other  interests  were  present.  Active  opposition  was  manifested  against  the  project. 
Following  this  meeting  the  Merchants  Association  of  New  York  through  Mr.  Edward 
Hatch,  Jr.,  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Pollution  of  Water  of  that  association,  ad- 
dressed a  protest  to  the  Secretary  of  War  against  the  construction  of  the  Bronx  valley 
sewer.  The  question  as  to  the  authority  of  the  State  Department  of  Health  and  the 
State  Engineer  and  Surveyor  to  attach  their  approval  to  the  plans  for  the  sewer  as  then 
drawn,  was  submitted  by  the  Commissioner  of  Health  to  the  Attorney  General  on  De- 
cember 10th  for  an  opinion.  Under  date  of  December  13th,  1906,  Assistant  Attorney 
General  Danforth  replied  that  in  his  opinion  "  the  State  Commissioner  of  Health  can 
not  travel  outside  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  (Chapter  646  of  the  Laws  of  1905)  and 
impose  a  condition  not  provided  for  in  the  act  itself.  It  is  the  positive  mandate  of 
the  Legislature  that  a  sewer  of  the  character  described  in  the  act,  constructed  for  the 
purpose  specified  in  the  act,  on  the  route  mentioned  therein  and  terminating  into  the 
waters  of  the  Hudson  river  shall  be  constructed,  and  the  province  of  the  State  Com- 
missioner of  Health  in  affixing  his  official  approval  to  the  map  and  plans  thereof,  is 
to  certify  that  such  a  sewer  will  accomplish  the  purposes  stated  in  the  act." 

Approval  of  Plans.  Acting  in  accordance  with  this  decision  which  passed  upon 
other  questions  relating  to  the  construction  of  the  sewer  the  Commissioner  of  Health 
on  December  31st,  1906,  returned  to  the  Bronx  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  at  White 
Plains  the  plans  for  the  Bronx  vallew  sewer  with  his  approval  attached  thereto. 

Various  protests  have  been  made  since  the  filing  of  this  decision,  but  to  no  avail, 
as  the  Bronx  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  has  proceeded  with  the  construction  of  the 
sewer  in  accordance  with  the  plans  which  were  approved  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Health. 

Outfall.  In  the  plans  for  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  into  the  Hudson  river  at 
Mt.  St.  Vincent,  the  outfall  sewer  instead  of  terminating  at  the  bulkhead  line  and  dis- 
charging at  approximately  tide  level  as  is  the  custom  along  this  section  of  the  Hud- 
son river  shore,  will  be  carried  out  to  the  pierhead  line  and  be  discharged  through  two 


302  DATA   COLLECTED 

outfall  sewers  at  an  elevation  some  35  feet  below  tide  level,  by  which  it  is  hoped  to  ob- 
tain complete  diffusion  of  the  sewage,  its  rapid  digestion  by  the  river  water  and  the 
prevention  of  visual  pollution  along  the  river  shore. 

It  is  estimated  that  a  population  of  680,000  will  be  tributary  to  the  sewer  some 
years  hence. 

The  work  of  construction  is  now  (1909)  under  way  at  various  points  in  the  Bronx 
valley  and  the  tunnel  to  the  Hudson  river  has  been  started. 

The  population  sewered  in  the  Bronx  valley  district  in  the  year  1908  is  estimated 
to  have  been  32,700  and  the  quantity  of  sewage  now  produced  is  estimated  to  be 
2,000,000  gallons  per  day.  By  the  time  the  outfall  and  the  sewer  are  completed  the 
sewage  discharge  will  probably  amount  to  3,000,000  gallons  per  day. 

SEWERAGE  OF  WHITE  PLAINS 

Several  of  the  towns  in  the  valley  of  the  Bronx  river  in  Westchester  County  are 
provided  with  plants  for  the  purification,  or  at  least  partial  purification,  of  the  sewage. 
The  first  of  these  to  be  constructed  was  the  plant  at  White  Plains. 

Sewers.  The  construction  of  a  system  of  sewerage  works  for  the  reception  of 
sewage  only  to  the  exclusion  of  storm  water  was  commenced  in  1893.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  some  30  miles  of  pipe  from  8  to  24  inches  in  diameter  and  50  flush 
tanks.  An  ejector  station  at  Westchester  avenue  and  North  street  lifts  from  100,000  to 
300,000  gallons  of  sewage  per  day  to  a  higher  level  sewer  from  that  portion  of  the  city 
which  is  too  low  to  discharge  by  gravity  to  the  sewage  purification  plant. 

Sewage  Flow.  The  population  connected  with  the  system  of  sewers  is  about  12,000. 
No  manufacturing  wastes  enter  the  sewers,  but  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  leak- 
age into  them  of  ground  water.  The  average  flow  of  sewage  is  possibly  a  little  less 
than  a  million  gallons  per  day. 

Purification  Works.  The  sewage  flows  to  a  sewage  purification  plant  built  under 
the  patents  of  J.  J.  Powers.  As  it  enters  the  works  the  sewage  receives  a  stream  of 
milk  of  lime,  and  another  of  a  solution  of  perchloride  of  iron,  flowing  thence  150  to  200 
feet  through  mixing  tanks  and  passing  through  a  screen  of  %-inch  mesh,  and  under  two 
baffle  boards  to  a  siphon  chamber.  From  the  siphon  chamber  it  passes  into  a  sedimen- 
tation basin  45  feet  long  and  24  feet  wide,  from  which  it  again  siphons  into  a  well  and 
passes  through  an  effluent  pipe  some  2,000  feet  long  to  the  Bronx  river.  The  bottom 
of  the  river  is  usually  covered  with  sediment  deposited  from  the  partially  purified 
effluent.  Five  to  six  barrels  of  lime  are  used  at  the  plant  daily.  The  lime  solution  ia 
agitated  by  pumping  the  water  through  a  perforated  pipe  in  the  bottom  of  the  mixing 
troughs.  The  iron  solution  is  mixed  in  an  1,800-gallon  iron  vat,  the  quantity  used 


SEWERAGE  OF  BRONX  VALLEY  303 

daily  frequently  reaching  a  carboy.  The  iron  solution  is  agitated  by  blowing  compressed 
air  through  it. 

The  sludge  is  pumped  from  the  tanks  weekly  upon  adjacent  sludge  beds  of  which 
there  are  two  having  a  combined  area  of  3,000  square  feet.  Sludge  accumulates  to  a 
depth  of  three  or  four  indies  at  each  cleaning,  and  is  left  on  the  beds  for  about  a  week, 
or  until  dry  enough  to  be  winrowed  to  hasten  the  drying.  Some  35  cubic  yards  of  ma- 
terial are  removed  at  each  cleaning.  About  24  hours  previous  to  cleaning  the  sedimen- 
tation chamber  it  is  the  practice  to  treat  the  sludge  with  chlorine  prepared  by  mixing 
oxide  of  manganese,  salt  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  mixture  is  made  in  a  lead  lined 
iron  tank  having  a  gauge  indicating  the  pressure  in  the  generator;  sufficient  acid  is 
added  to  the  salt  and  oxide  of  manganese  to  produce  the  required  pressure,  on  reach- 
ing which  the  gas  is  fed  to  the  tanks  to  be  cleaned  through  2-inch  lead  pipes  perfor- 
ated with  i/4-inch  holes  12  inches  apart  and  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  sedimentation 
chamber  six  inches  above  the  bottom. 

One  of  the  attendants  in  charge  of  the  work  maintains  on  one  of  the  sludge  de- 
posits a  small  garden  in  which  vegetables  are  successfully  cultivated  notwithstanding 
the  visible  presence  of  lime  and  many  particles  of  the  more  indestructible  ingredients 
of  sewage. 

The  annual  cost  of  operating  the  plant  in  1907,  including  the  cost  of  operating  the 
ejector  at  Westchester  avenue  and  North  street,  is  given  as  about  |8,700. 

Defects.  The  sewage  disposal  plant  at  White  Plains  has  for  a  number  of  years 
failed  to  purify  the  sewage  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  objectionable  pollution  of  the 
Bronx  river.  The  late  J.  J.  R.  Croes  gave  an  opinion  in  December,  1905,  after  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  plant  and  the  character  of  the  effluent,  that  "the  interests  to  pub- 
lic health  demand  that  the  village  of  White  Plains  should  be  required  to  take  steps 
at  once  to  improve  the  character  of  the  effluent  either  by  more  efficient  management 
or  the  substitution  of  another  system."  In  March,  190G,  it  was  again  inspected  and  re- 
ported upon  by  Mr.  E.  T.  King,  Inspecting  Engineer  of  W7ater  Supply  of  the  State 
Department  of  Health,  and  in  October  of  the  same  year,  by  Mr.  Theo.  Horton,  Con- 
sulting Engineer  of  the  State  Department  of  Health,  and  on  September  27th,  1907,  by 
Mr.  H.  B.  Cleveland,  Assistant  Engineer,  State  Department  of  Health,  and  again  on 
October  28th,  1907,  by  Mr.  Theo.  Horton.  All  these  examinations  indicated  that  the 
purification  at  the  White  Plains  sewage  disposal  plant,  from  lack  of  proper  manage- 
ment, mainly  in  overworking  the  plant,  was  inefficient;  and  that  decomposing  deposits 
along  the  bottom  and  shore  of  the  stream,  resulting  from  this  inefficient  operation, 
produced  offensive  odors  amounting  io  a  public  nuisance  to  the  residents  of  Hartsdale, 
Scarsdale  and  other  villages  residing  along  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  below 


304  DATA   COLLECTED 

these  works.    These  latter  investigations  were  made  on  the  complaints  of  the  citizens 
of  the  towns  down  the  valley  below  White  Plains. 

Having  in  mind  the  probability  of  the  ultimate  construction  of  the  Bronx  valley 
sewer  the  authorities  of  White  Plains  have  resisted  making  further  investments 
for  changes  and  improvements  of  the  sewerage  works.  When  the  Bronx  valley  sewer 
is  completed  the  sewage  of  White  Plains  will  be  discharged  into  the  Hudson  river. 

SEWERAGE  OF  TUCKAHOE 

Sewers.  A  system  of  sewers,  for  house  sewage  only,  and  a  small  purification  plant 
were  put  in  operation  in  Tuckahoe  about  September  1st,  1907.  Tuckahoe  which  has  a 
population  of  2,000  is  situated  a  mile  north  of  Bronxville.  The  sewerage  system  in- 
cludes 23,000  feet  of  pipe  ranging  from  8  to  15  inches  in  diameter,  a  settling  tank  with 
a  maximum  daily  capacity  of  226,000  gallons,  and  two  aerating  beds.  Sewage  was 
first  allowed  to  flow  into  the  sewers  on  June  1st,  1907.  The  cost  of  the  sewers  was 
$39,000  and  the  cost  of  the  settling  tank  and  contact  beds  $10,000  including  the  cost 
of  engineering. 

Purification  Works.  The  sewage  enters  one  of  the  two  grit  chambers  5  feet  wide, 
15  feet  long  and  about  4  feet  deep  from  which  it  enters  a  shallow  semi-circular  cham- 
ber through  which  it  passes  to  pipes  leading  to  one  of  the  five  settling  chambers. 
These  chambers  are  baffled  in  a  manner  to  cause  the  sewage  to  descend  to  the  bottom, 
then  over  a  concrete  weir  and  concrete  surface  from  which  it  passes  to  two  openings 
in  the  chamber  wall  discharging  below  the  the  sewage  surface  in  the  main  channel  ex- 
tending along  the  entrance  to  the  two  aeration  beds.  The  tank  effluent  may  be 
turned  upon  either  or  both  of  the  beds.  The  aeration  beds  are  100  feet  square  and  the 
crushed  marble  varies  in  depth  from  nine  inches  in  the  inlet  end  to  six  inches  in  the 
outlet  end.  The  stones  average  about  two  inches  in  diameter.  Three  brick  baffles 
have  been  placed  in  the  areatiou  beds  to  retard  the  flow  of  the  sewage.  From  the  beds 
the  sewer  enters  an  effluent  channel  through  which  it  flows  into  the  Bronx  river 
about  30  feet  distant.  At  the  present  time  the  plant  apparently  is  operated  without 
any  attention,  and  as  a  rule  the  sewage  passes  from  the  settling  tanks  direct  to  the 
Bronx  river. 

Complaints.  Complaint  has  been  made  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  this  plant, 
although  the  examination  made  in  September,  1907,  by  the  State  Department  of 
Health  seems  to  indicate  that  the  plant  was  capable  of  producing  satisfactory  results 
if  properly  operated.' 


SEWERAGE  OF  MT.  VERNON  305 

SEWERAGE  OF  BROXXVILLE 

Sewers.  The  sewerage  system  of  Bronxville  comprises  a  little  less  than  six  miles 
of  pipe  lines  to  which  160  connections,  including  those  of  two  or  three  large  hotels,  have 
been  made.  The  sewage  flows  to  a  well  12  feet  square  and  15  feet  deep  from  which  it  is 
pumped  to  settling  chambers  by  electrically  driven  pumps  in  duplicate. 

Purification  Works.  From  the  pumps  the  sewage  enters  a  grit  chamber  12  feet 
wide,  20  feet  long  and  10  feet  deep,  across  which  is  placed  a  vertical  screen  having 
one-half  inch  rods  placed  one  inch,  center  to  center.  From  the  grit  chamber  the  sew- 
age enters  the  settling  chamber  in  which  it  flows  a  distance  of  40  feet,  returning 
parallel  to  itself  to  a  dosing  chamber.  From  this  chamber  250  to  300  feet  of  10-inch 
outfall  pipe  leads  the  settled  sewage  to  the  Bronx  river.  A  sludge  pipe  is  provided  for 
conducting  the  sludge  to  neighboring  low  land.  No  storm  water  enters  the  sewers.  In 
1908  about  1,200  persons  were  residing  in  Bronxville. 

SEWERAGE  OF  MT.  VERNON.,  PELHAM  AND  PELHAM  MANOR 

Pollution  of  Hutchinson  River.  Hutchinson  river,  in  Westchester  County,  has, 
for  a  number  of  years,  been  grossly  polluted  with  the  sewage  of  Mt.  Vernon,  Pelham 
Manor  and  North  Pelham,  and  numerous  complaints  have  been  made  to  the  State 
Board  of  Health  to  cause  the  nuisance  to  be  abated. 

Mt,  Vernon  has  had  numerous  examinations  and  reports  made  for  sewerage  and 
sewage  disposal,  but  has  deferred  the  adoption  of  these  for  one  reason  or  another  until 
in  1909. 

Seicers  of  Mt.  Ycrnon.  The  city  is  provided  with  a  complete  system  of  sewers, 
and  about  28,000  of  its  30,000  population  (1908),  are  served  with  the  system  which, 
prior  to  its  interception,  discharged  through  three  separate  outlets  into  Hutchinson 
river.  Eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the  entire  sewage  of  the  city  is  taken  to  the  outfall  near 
the  foot  of  Fulton  avenue  for  purification. 

Sewers  of  Pelham.  The  Village  of  Pelliam,  lying  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hutchin- 
son river,  opposite  Mt.  Vernon,  has  a  population  of  300  or  400  who  are  served  by  the 
sewer  system. 

Sewers  of  Pelham  Manor.  Pelham  Manor  has  a  population  of  650  and  practically 
every  house  in  the  village  is  connected  with  the  sewer  system.  At  North  Pelham  a 
small  amount  of  sewage  is  discharged  into  the  river  from  a  few  houses ;  no  sewer  sys- 
tem has  been  constructed  in  this  village. 

Mt.  Vernon  Purification  Works.  It  is  estimated  that  somewhat  more  than  2,000,000 
gallons  of  sewage  per  day  originates  in  this  group  of  municipalities,  1,800,000  gallons 
per  day  being  the  estimated  quantity  that  will  be  delivered  to  the  Mt.  Vernon  sewage 


30G  DATA   COLLECTED 

purification  works.  The  process  of  purification  adopted  includes  settlement  and  sub- 
sidence in  covered  settling  basins,  filti'ation  through  covered  sprinkling  filters  and  final 
settlement  of  the  effluent  in  open  basins.  The  effluent  is  to  be  discharged  into  a  .small 
tidal  tributary  of  Hutchinson  river  at  a  point  about  three  miles  from  the  head  of  East- 
chester  bay,  one  of  the  most  indented  of  the  many  long  narrow  tidal  arms  of  the  Sound 
in  this  vicinity. 

Provisions  are  made  for  the  prevention  of  the  escaping  odors  from  the  purification 
works  by  connecting  the  settling  basins  and  sprinkling  filters  with  t\vo  tall  ventilating 
towers  intended  to  contain  beds  of  oxide  of  iron  through  which  the  gases  and  vapors 
given  off  in  the  process  of  purifying  the  sewage  may  be  passed  to  become  neutralized. 
The  works  are  practically  complete  but  are  not  yet  in  operation. 

SEWERAGE  OF  NEW  ROCHELLE 

Sewers.  The  sewerage  system  of  New  Rochelle  contains  upwards  of  55  miles  of 
sewers,  but  only  the  sewage  of  about  one-third  of  the  city  on  the  side  adjoining  the  town 
of  Pelham  and  approximating  700,000  gallons  per  day  for  a  population  of  7,000  people 
goes  to  the  purification  plant  situated  at  the  foot  of  Morgan  street.  The  effluent  is  dis- 
charged into  Long  Island  Sound  opposite  to  Glen  Island,  about  5,100  feet  from  the 
plant.  The  purification  works  were  put  in  operation  in  the  fall  of  1898. 

Purification  Works.  As  the  sewage  enters  it  first  passes  through  a  screen  with  bars 
spaced  one-half  inch  apart,  thence  through  a  baffle  chamber  30  feet  long  and  2  feet  wide, 
at  the  entrance  to  which  the  lime  and  copperas  are  introduced  and  subsequently  mixed 
through  the  sewage  by  the  agitation  caused  in  passing  around  the  baffles.  From  the 
mixing  channel  the  sewage  flows  through  a  conduit  into  one  of  five  sedimentation 
tanks,  each  66  feet  long  and  22  feet  wide.  From  these  five  tanks  it  passes  into  an 
effluent  pipe  and  out  into  the  Sound. 

The  sludge  from  the  sedimentation  tanks  is  drained  into  a  cistern  12  feet  in  diam- 
eter in  front  of  the  building,  from  which  it  is  pumped  to  three  sludge  beds  each  having 
a  total  length  of  71  feet  and  a  width  of  25.5  feet,  the  three  having  a  combined  area  of 
1/10  acre.  Around  the  inside  of  each  bed  and  two  feet  below  the  top  of  the  exterior 
walls  is  built  a  concrete  shelf  two  feet  wide,  and  within  the  area  enclosed  by  this 
shelf  there  are  24  concrete  piers  two  feet  high  with  their  tops  on  the  same  level  as 
the  2-foot  concrete  shelf.  The  filtering  materials  in  the  sludge  beds  consist  of  six 
inches  of  cinders  on  top  of  18  inches  of  broken  stone.  The  liquid  pumped  with  the 
sludge  filters  down  through  the  cinders  and  enters  the  3-inch  undcrdram  tiles  leading 
to  the  two  sludge  wells  at  the  center  of  each  bed.  The  six  sludge  wells  are  connected 
by  a  pipe  and  discharge  into  a  manhole  near  the  sedimentation  chamber  from  whence 
the  filtrate  flows  into  the  effluent  pipe  through  a  total  length  of  about  200  feet  of  12- 


SEWERAGE  OF  NEW  ROCHELLE  307 

inch  pipe.  When  the  sludge  on  the  sludge  beds  is  dry  enough  to  handle  it  is  collected 
in  piles  and  wheeled  to  a  point  about  150  feet  distant.  The  total  amount  of  sludge 
collected  annually  averages  1,240  cubic  yards,  or  about  17  cubic  yards  at  each  clean- 
ing. The  sedimentation  tanks  are  cleaned  every  five  or  six  days,  and  the  sludge  from 
cue  of  the  three  beds  at  the  same  time. 
Annual  operating  expenses. 

Fuel f  78  00 

Engineer  and  2  laborers 2,860  00 

43  tons  copperas 720  00 

400  Ibs.  lime  daily  at  flG  per  ton 1,168  00 

Chloride  of  lime,  400  tons  at  45  cents  per  ton 180  00 


$4,806  00 
Cost  of  the  plant,  as  estimated  by  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Health,  was  $3,194. 

SECTION  III 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  NEW  JERSEY  METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Characteristics  of  the  District.  Within  the  boundaries  of  the  New  Jersey 
part  of  the  metropolitan  district,  lie  several  important  centers  of  population.  Some 
of  these  are  situated  upon  relatively  small  bodies  of  water,  and  the  discharge  therein  of 
sewage  and  manufacturing  wastes  has  led  to  co-operative  efforts  to  correct  present  and 
prevent  future  nuisances. 

Among  the  efforts  made  may  be  mentioned : 

a.  The  Union  outlet  sewer,  constructed  under  an  agreement  entered  into 
between  Montclair,  Orange,  Bloomfield  and  Glen  Ridge  for  the  discharge  of  the 
sewage  of  these  communities  into  the  Passaic  river  near  the  upper  end  of  Newark. 

ft.  The  Joint  outlet  sewer,  so-called,  which  diverts  the  sewage  of  Soutli 
Orange,  Vailsburg,  Irvington,  and  a  portion  of  Newark  to  the  Kill  van  Kull  at 
Elizabeth. 

c.     The  proposed  Passaic  valley  sewer. 

Several  of  the  cities  in  the  district  have  investigated  methods  and  constructed 
works  for  disposing  of  their  sewage,  among  these  being  East  Orange,  where  a  puri- 
fication plant  was  built  and  operated  for  a  number  of  years,  but  put  out  of  serv- 
ice in  1896  when  arrangements  were  made  to  discharge  into  the  Newark  system,  Sum- 
mit, N.  J.,  which  had  a  purification  plant  in  use  until  the  joint  outlet  sewer  was  con- 
structed, and  Newark,  where  extensive  intercepting  sewers  have  been  built  leading  to  a 
pumping  station  from  which  the  sewage  is  pumped  out  to  Newark  bay.  Several  re- 
ports have  been  made  on  the  disposal  of  Paterson's  sewage  independently  of  the  other 
communities  in  the  Passaic  valley;  in  Elizabeth  it  has  been  necessary  to  construct  in- 


308  DATA   COLLECTED 

terceptors  and  a  pumping  station  to  deliver  the  city's  sewage  into  the  Joint  outlet  and 
relieve  the  intolerable  condition  of  the  Elizabeth  river. 

Cranford  and  Rahway  have  also  joint  interest  in  an  outlet  sewer  discharging  into 
the  river  below  Eahway. 

Newark  bay,  which  lies  parallel  to  and  is  separated  from  Upper  New  York  bay 
by  the  Bayonne  peninsula,  receives  at  its  head  the  waters  of  the  Passaic  and 
Hackensack  rivers.  All  the  sewage  and  liquid  manufacturing  wastes  from  the  com- 
munities in  the  watersheds  of  these  two  streams  find  their  way  ultimately  into  the  bay, 
and  thence  into  the  ocean  through  Kill  van  Kull  and  the  Arthur  Kill.  It  is  estimated 
that  about  83  per  cent,  of  the  discharge  from  Newark  bay  goes  to  sea  through  the  Kill 
van  Kull  and  Narrows,  and  about  17  per  cent  through  Arthur  Kill.  Newark  bay  is 
shallow  and  broad,  which  is  one  of  the  factors  that  may  have  prevented  its  becoming 
exceedingly  offensive.  Its  shallowness  and  great  area  insure  the  replacement  of  a  large 
percentage  of  its  total  volume  during  each  tide,  and  the  consequent  extensive  diffusion 
of  the  sewage  through  the  water. 

The  population  of  the  entire  area  within  the  limits  of  the  New  Jersey  metropolitan 
district  in  1905  was  1,203,387;  the  population  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  over  25,000 
population  was  910,764,  and  of  the  small  villages  and  rural  districts,  292,623.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  population  of  the  district  was  centered  in  Newark,  Jersey  City  and 

Paterson. 

SEWERAGE  OF  NEWAEK,  N.  J. 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Newark  with  a  population  in  1905  of  283,289  is  the  largest  city  in  the  metropolitan 
district  in  New  Jersey,  and  is  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  Passaic  river  just  north 
of  Elizabeth,  east  of  the  Oranges  and  south  of  Belleville,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
Second  river.  From  the  Market  street  Station,  Newark,  to  City  Hall  in  Manhattan  in 
a  straight  line  is  8.5  miles. 

That  portion  of  Newark  west  of  the  Passaic  river  and  Broad  street,  about  14  square 
miles  in  extent,  is  characterized  by  a  line  of  hills  parallel  with  the  river.  To  the  east 
and  south  of  Broad  street  lie  some  six  square  miles  of  meadow  laud  but  a  few  feet 
above  tide  level.  The  summits  of  the  hills  in  Newark  rise  from  about  170  feet  in  the 
Riverside  district  to  235  feet  above  sea  level  in  the  West  Park  district.  Rock  outcrops 
do  not  interfere  to  any  extent  with  the  construction  of  sewers,  probably  less  than  10  per 
cent,  of  the  trenches  having  required  blasting.  Quicksand  exists  to  a  large  extent  in  the 
lower  levels  and  water  bearing  drift  in  many  places. 

Drainage  Areas.  The  natural  drainage  areas  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  city 
empty  into  the  Passaic  river,  Second  river  and  Branch  brook ;  the  southern  portion  into 
the  Meadows  and  the  western  or  Vailsburg  section  into  two  small  creeks  flowing  south 


SEWERAGE  OF  NEWARK  309 

into  the  Elizabeth  river.  The  storm  water  drainage  in  most  cases  follows  quite  closely 
the  natural  routes. 

Board  of  Street  and  Water  Commissioners.  A  board,  known  as  The  Board  of 
Street  and  Water  Commissioners  has  charge  of  all  public  works  in  Newark.  Reporting 
to  the  board  is  a  Chief  Engineer  under  whom  are  the  engineers  in  charge  of  the  design 
and  construction  of  structures  relating  to  water,  streets,  sewers  and  lighting,  and  a  gen- 
eral Superintendent  of  Works  who  has  charge  of  maintenance  of  streets,  sewers  and 
lights.  One  of  the  assistants  to  the  Chief  Engineer  has  charge,  as  one  of  his  duties,  of 
the  correlation  of  one  department  with  another,  and  the  adjustment  of  differences 
which  may  arise  with  respect  to  conflicts  of  authority. 

Department  of  Sewers.  The  engineer  in  charge  of  the  department  of  sewers  and 
drainage  has  under  him  a  field  and  office  force  of  eight  trained  engineers  and  three 
helpers;  and  in  the  house  sewer  connection  department  one  engineer  and  various  clerks. 
The  engineers  are  all  under  State  Civil  Service  regulation.  Fifteen  inspectors  for  con- 
struction work  are  permanently  on  the  list,  but  are  paid  by  the  day  when  work  is  being 
carried  on. 

Department  of  Works.  Under  the  General  Superintendent  of  Works  is  a  superin- 
tendent of  sewers,  appointed  under  Civil  Service  regulations.  The  foremen  act  as  in- 
spectors and  are  assigned  to  certain  subdivisions  of  territory  which  they  go  over  regu- 
larly making  inspections  and  cleaning  basins  and  sewers. 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Design.  The  original  sewerage  of  Newark  was  on  the  combined  system  but  since  the 
construction  of  the  interceptor  and  pumping  station  in  1887  house  drainage  and  ground 
water  have  been  separated  from  the  storm  water  over  an  ever  increasing  portion  of  the 
city.  In  1908  there  were  57.7  miles  of  house  drainage  sewers,  5  miles  of  drains  for 
storm  water  only  and  200  miles  of  combined  sewers.  The  necessity  for  the  disposal  of 
house  sewage  at  some  future  time,  either  through  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  or  through  a 
local  interceptor,  requires  that  separate  systems  be  used  as  extensively  as  possible. 

For  calculating  the  quantity  of  water  expected  to  reach  the  sewers  the  formula  de- 
duced by  Rudolph  Hering,  C.  E.,  from  guagiugs  of  sewers  in  The  City  of  New  York  in 
1888  has  been  used.  This  is : 

Q  =  C  R  A-83  x  S-2T 

For  Newark  conditions 
C  =  1.00  in  suburbs 

1.25  in  half  built  up  portions 
1.50  in  down  town  districts 
R  =  Rainfall  intensity,  in  inches  per  hour. 
A  =  Area  in  acres. 
S  =  Slope  in  feet  per  1000. 
Q—  Cubic  feet  per  second  of  water  expected  to  reach  the  sewers. 


310  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  sewers  designed  by  this  formula  have  been  found  to  take  ,all  but  the  very 
heaviest  of  storms.  Various  allowances  have  been  made  for  the  capacities  of  the  house 
drainage  sewers.  In  making  a  recalculation  of  the  capacity  of  the  main  interceptor  in 
1893  it  was  assumed  that  the  population  would  be  90  persons  per  acre  using  75  gallons 
of  water  per  diem  each.  TAVo-thirds  of  this  quantity  was  to  be  carried  off  by  the  sewers 
in  eight  hours.  For  the  East  Branch  sewer  a  population  of  100  per  acre  was  assumed, 
using  75  gallons  of  water  per  day,  the  sewer  to  run  one-half  full  and  to  take  two-thirds 
the  flow  off  in  eight  hours.  Later  separate  systems  have  been  built  using  a  population 
of  60  and  even  as  low  as  30  per  acre. 

An  allowance  for  the  leakage  of  30,000  gallons  of  ground  water  into  the  sewers 
per  day  per  mile  of  sewer  is  customary  in  designing  sewers.  Guagings  of  the  Union  out- 
let sewer  which  drains  Orange,  Montclair,  Glen  Ridge,  and  Bloomfield,  indicated  to  the 
consulting  engineers  of  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewage  Commission  that  the  average  leakage 
would  be  about  350,000  gallons  per  square  mile  per  day  for  the  area  between  the  moun- 
tain and  the  river.  Provision  was  made  at  one  time,  prior  to  1900,  for  the  entrance  of 
ground  water  into  the  combined  sewers  by  laying  several  courses  of  brick  in  the  bottom 
of  the  sewrers  without  mortar  joints. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  the  sewers  is  calculated  from  Kutter's  formula  using 
11  =  .013  for  pipes  and  .015  for  brick  and  concrete  sewers. 

All  concrete  sewers  have  inverts  lined  with  vitrified  brick  so  that  the  same  coefficient 
is  used  for  both  brick  and  concrete  sewers. 

Velocities.  It  is  the  intention  wherever  possible  to  have  the  velocity  in  the  sewers 
at  least  three  feet  per  second. 

Materials.  Practically  all  of  the  older  sewers  above  24  inches  in  size  have  been 
constructed  of  brick.  Experience  with  vitrified  pipe  of  larger  sizes  than  21  inches 
diameter  has  :iot  always  been  satisfactory  in  Newark.  Eecently  reinforced  concrete  has 
been  used  both  in  place  and  for  pipes  made  on  the  bank.  In  1908  about  one-third  of 
total  mileage  of  public  sewers  was  either  brick  or  concrete.  A  note  of  replacing  a  brick 
sewer  in  Nutria  street  built  over  40  years  ago  says  that  it  "  was  found  to  be  in  such 
dangerous  condition  that  it  was  torn  out  and  replaced  by  an  18-inch  pipe." 

Outlets.  In  general  the  elevation  of  the  inverts  of  the  various  outlets  is  at  low 
water.  A  few  are  above  or  below  but  none  are  above  high  water.  It  is  probable  that  at 
times  of  high  water  the  flow  in  the  Jackson  street  and  the  City  Dock  sewers  backs  up 
half  a  mile  or  more. 

Ventilation.  The  manhole  covers  are  perforated  and  a  circulation  of  air  from  man- 
hole to  manhole  provided  in  this  way. 


SEWERAGE  OF  NEWARK 


311 


Basin  Design.  Standard  forms  of  manholes  and  catch  basins  are  in  general  ad- 
hered to;  but  there  are  a  few  basins  much  shallower  than  the  standard,  and  also  a 
few  have  been  built  of  concrete  blocks  and  of  reinforced  concrete.  The  standard  brick 
manhole  is  considered  the  cheapest  in  most  cases.  It  is  not  thought  practicable  to  elimin- 
ate the  basins  from  much  of  the  territory,  particularly  on  those  sewers  which  do  not 
have  good  grades. 

Flush  Tanks.  Flush  tanks  are  used  on  the  separate  systems ;  103  are  reported  as 
being  in  use  in  1908. 

Principal  Sewers.  The  earlier  sewers  were  built  of  pipe  and  brick  with  little  re- 
gard to  requirements  as  to  size;  in  most  cases  they  were  made  too  large.  Instances 
have  been  noted  of  the  same  size  and  grade  being  used  from  the  outlet  to  a  dead  end 
where  there  was  no  possible  chance  for  any  further  development.  The  drainage  areas 
and  sizes  of  the  various  Newark  sewers  are  given  in  Table  XVII. 


TABLE  XVII 

DRAINAGE  AREAS  OF  NEWARK  SEWERS 


Acres 

Size  of  Outlet 

Material 

Shape 

Verona  avenue  

687 

5'3"x6'0" 

Brick 

Delaware  avenue  

90  (not  built) 

Herbert  place  

255 

3'6"x4'0" 

Brick 

Third  avenue  

13 

15" 

Pine 

Fourth  avenue  

190 

4'0"x4'0" 

Brick 

Clark  street  

39 

3'0" 

Brick 

Millbrook  

1  762 

Two-6'9"x9'3' 

Orange  street  

13 

2'0"x3'0" 

Bridge  street  

12 

15" 

Pipe 

Rector  street  

132 

5'0"x6'0" 

Brick 

Central  relief  

302 

6'0"x6'0" 

City   dock  

354 

5'6"x6'6" 

Jackson  street  

84 

4'10"x5'3" 

Polk  street  

188 

7'0"x8'0" 

Freeman  street  

143 

4'0" 

Brown  street  

92 

24" 

Pipe 

East  branch  (N.  of  St.  Charles  street)  .  . 
Interceptor  (excl.  of  above)  

256 
3,342 

3'0"x4'6" 
6'6" 

Brick  and  concrete. 
Brick 

312  DATA   COLLECTED 

Of  the  foregoing  the  Millbrook  twin  outlet  (each  6  feet  9  inches  by  9  feet  3  inches) 
sewer  at  the  foot  of  Clay  street  drains  an  area  of  1,762  acres  in  the  Roseville  district  and 
also  relieves  the  Fourth  avenue  sewer. 

The  Central  relief  sewer,  emptying  at  the  foot  of  Saybrooke  place  was  built  to  re- 
lieve the  Rector  avenue  sewer  which  was  overtaxed  at  its  outlet  during  heavy  storms. 

The  City  Dock  sewer,  5  feet  6  inches  by  6  feet  6  inches,  drains  354  acres  in  the 
heart  of  the  city. 

The  house  sewage  from  about  one-third  of  the  whole  city  discharges  through  the  in- 
tercepting sewer  into  Newark  bay  at  the  foot  of  Bay  avenue,  the  storm  water  outlet 
for  this  southern  territory  being  into  Peddie  street  canal  and  the  meadows. 

Interceptor.  An  intercepting  sewer  was  built  in  1887  to  take  care  of  the  house  sew- 
age from  a  section  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  city.  Its  capacity  is  stated  to  be 
70,000,000  gallons  daily,  but  the  pumping  capacity  is  only  30  million  gallons  daily.  The 
sewer  was  obliged  to  take  the  house  drainage  and  one-quarter-inch  to  three-eighths-inch 
of  rainfall  per  21  hours  from  about  7,400  acres.  About  3,600  acres,  or  less  than  half  of 
this  area,  is  now  connected.  Pumping  records  show  a  great  increase  of  flow  during 
storms  so  that  a  good  deal  of  surface  drainage  or  ground  water  must  find  its  way  into 
the  sewer.  A  yearly  fluctuation  is  noted,  but  this  is  explained  in  part  by  the  correction 
for  slip  being  calculated  uniformly  at  8  per  cent.,  without  regard  to  the  condition  of 
the  pumps.  Just  why  there  should  be  so  much  daily  variation  is  not  known  although  it 
is  possible  to  shut  down  sewer  gates  controlling  the  discharge  into  the  Peddie  street 
canal  and  divert  much  or  little  to  the  interceptor.  The  average,  maximum  and  minimum 
pumpage  rates  per  day  as  measured  by  the  plunger  displacement  together  with  other 
pumping  station  data  are  given  in  Table  XVIII. 


SEWERAGE  OF  NEWARK 
TABLE  XVIII 

PUMPING  STATION  DATA,  NEWARK^  N.  J. 


313 


Year 

Putnpage  in  million  gallons  daily 

Total  annual  cost 
for 
pumping  station 

Average 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Coal  consumed  Ibs. 

1888.      .                         

7.6 
6.7 
9.7 
7.8 
8.5 
9.6 
10.1 
10.3 
9.8 
10.8 
13.3 
12.5 
13.1 
12.8 
13.0 
12.9 
13.3 
13.6 
13.2 
12.4 
13.1 

19.5 
20.1 

26.7 
30.4 
31.4 
31.9 

31.6 
23.5 
30.3 

5.0 
4.0 

6.6 
4.7 
5.0 
5.6 

2.6 
4.3 
5.7 

998,852 

1,430,288 
1,470,899 
1,495,604 
1,697,331 

1,672,992 
1,691,993 
1,670,637 

$10,889.77 

12,458.06  (Eat.) 

17,301.73 
12,961.29 
13,884.51 

1889  

1890  

1891  

1892  

1893.  .  .      .                 

1894   .                           

I 

J895  ...                         

1896                            

1897.  .                                .    .  . 

1898       .                     

1899                                   

1900 

1901  

1902              .    .              

1903  

1904  

1905  

1906  

1907  

1908  

East  Branch  Intercepting  Sewer.  The  so-called  east  branch  of  the  intercepting 
sewer  was  part  of  the  project  reported  upon  by  Mr.  Rudolph  Hering  in  1895.  The 
alignment  is  substantially  the  same  as  recommended  by  Mr.  Alphonse  Fteley  in  1884. 
At  the  present  time  the  east  branch  sewer  has  been  practically  completed;  it  drains  an 
area  of  256  acres  south  of  the  Pennsylavnia  railroad  and  east  to  the  Morris  canal.  It 
joins  the  old  intercepting  sewer  about  2,000  feet  from  the  pumping  station. 

East  Orange  Outlet  Seiver.  The  East  Orange  outlet  sewer  delivers  house  sewage 
into  the  Mill  brook  sewer  at  Newbold  avenue  in  Newark  from  practically  the  whole 
of  East  Orange  a  territory  of  about  four  square  miles. 


314  DATA   COLLECTED 

Vailsburg  Seicers.  The  entire  area  of  the  Vailsburg  section,  containing  806  acres, 
arid  of  about  265  acres  in  Newark,  lying  between  Thirteenth  avenue  and  Lyons  avenue 
and  approximately  as  far  east  as  South  Fourteenth  street,  discharges  through  the 
Joint  outlet  sewer.  This  sewer  is  under  the  control  of  a  separate  commission  which 
has  charge  of  its  maintenance;  Newark  pays  for  her  share  in  the  maintenance  ex- 
pense $1,200  annually.  Some  sections  of  this  sewer  are  at  times  overcharged  and 
great  care,  therefore,  must  be  taken  to  exclude  surface  and  roof  water  from  the  main 
line  and  branches. 

Relief  Setcers.  Various  relief  sewers  have  been  built  from  time  to  time  as 
troubles  from  storm  water  floods  in  closely  built  up  sections  have  appeared.  The 
Adams  street  sewer  project  was  one  of  these,  house  sewage  only  going  to  the  intercep- 
tor therefrom,  the  storm  flow  being  diverted  to  Dead  creek. 

Meadowbrook  Sciccr  System.  Separate  systems  have  been  provided  for  the  house 
drainage  and  storm  water  run  off  in  the  valley  lying  west  of  Roseville  avenue  and  ex- 
tending from  Springdale  avenue  to  the  Old  Bloomfield  road.  The  surface  water  sys- 
tem extends  south  as  far  as  Park  avenue.  The  house  drainage  system  extends  botli 
north  and  south  of  Bloomfield  avenue  and  delivers  to  a  pumping  station  at  North 
Sixth  street  near  the  old  Bloomfield  road  from  which  it  is  to  be  pumped  into  the 
Forest  Hill  system. 

Passaic  Interceptor.  In  1884  Mr.  Alphouse  Fteley  proposed  an  interceptor  to 
skirt  the  Passaic  and  take  house  drainage  to  the  present  interceptor  through  a  branch 
on  Sauford  street.  This  scheme  is  still  feasible  and  might  be  put  through  except  for 
the  possibility  of  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  being  constructed. 

Sewage  Flow.  Newark  consumes  about  35,000,000  gallons  of  water  daily  with  an 
estimated  population  of  311,000,  or  114  gallons  per  capita  per  day.  In  1905  it  was 
estimated  that  the  quantity  of  sewage  discharged  through  tiie  41,907  sewer  connec- 
tions was  46,500,000  gallons  daily. 

Growth  of  the  System.  The  mileage  of  sewers,  number  of  basins  and  cost  of  sew- 
ers built  during  various  years  are  given  in  Table  XIX.  It  i.s  to  be  noted  that  the 
mileage  constructed  is  diminishing  rather  than  increasing.  The  city  of  Newark  is 
practically  covered  by  the  present  sewer  system  and  very  little  if  any  new  systems,  at 
least  of  any  magnitude,  are  called  for.  Practically  all  of  the  outlets  are  of  sufficient 
size  now  to  care  for  the  ultimate  development  of  the  city. 


SEWERAGE  OF  NEWARK 
TABLE  XIX 

GROWTH  OF  SEWER  SYSTEM  IN  NEWARK 


315 


Year 

Milage  of  Sewers 

No.  of  Basins 

Flush  tanks, 
Total 

Total  cost  (public 
sewers  only) 

Built  during 
year 

Total 

Built  during 
year 

Total 

1894 

13.20 

15.90 
5.35 
3.54 
11.60 
13.05 
10.32 
10.28* 
10.46 
10.46 
9.34 
5.80 

105.87 
128.07 

133 

155 
65 
63 
109f 
42 

100{ 
23 
26 
96 

2,165 
2,298 

2,579 
2,734 
2,799 
2,862 
2,964f 
3,056 

3.152J 
3,225 
3,251 
3,347 

22 

39 
49 
49 
49 
51 

93 
93 
100 
103 

$3,278,827  82 
3,486,594  39 
3,631,164  25 
3,721,324  09 
3,829,914  98 

4,300,636  97 
4,451,257  25 
4,734,910  02 
4,916,125  78 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898     

162.30 
178.20 
183.55 
187.09 
198.69 
211.74 

1899       

1900                   

1901 

1902                      .    . 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906  

232.36T1 

242.82 
253.30 
262.65 
268.45 

1907 

1908 

1009 

"Vailsburg  added  this  year. 

t4  basins  abandoned,  3  replaced,  3  already  in. 

t  Probably  4  abandoned. 

1  Error  0.02  mile. 

The  sower  outlets  of  Newark  are  considered  adequate  to  drain  the  terri- 
tory allotted  to  them  in  all  cases  excepting  the  City  Dock,  5  feet  6  inches  by  G  feet  6 
inches,  Freeman  street,  4  feet,  and  Brown  street,  24-inch  sewers.  There  are,  however, 
certain  sections  of  the  city,  back  from  the  outlets,  where  relief  sewers  are  needed  to  pre- 
vent flooding  during  heavy  storms. 

On  the  whole,  Newark  appears  to  be  very  completely  provided  with  sewers.  The 
policy  of  laying  sewers  and  house  connections  ahead  of  paving  has  been  inaugurated. 
An  ordinance  prohibits  the  use  of  cesspools  after  sewers  are  provided  so  that  there 
are  not  many  cesspools  left.  The  annexation  of  Belleville  to  the  north  is  now  contem- 
plated. This  area  is  not  sewered  at  all  and  will  probably  require  separate  sewers. 


316  DATA   COLLECTED 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  SYSTEM 

Cleaning.  In  the  business  section  of  the  city  the  department  is  able  to  clean  all 
catch  basins  about  every  two  weeks,  but  in  the  outlying  districts  perhaps  not  more 
than  once  or  twice  per  year.  In  1908,  when  there  were  3,349  catch  basins,  4,732  were 
reported  as  cleaned;  each  was,  therefore,  cleaned  on  the  average  14  times  per  year; 
men  are  specially  detailed  to  investigate  and  remedy  all  causes  of  complaint. 

Disposal  of  Cleanings.  The  materials  in  the  basins  are  said  to  be  not  generally 
putrefactive  and  are  disposed  of  on  public  dumps  approved  by  the  Board  of  Health. 
These  dumps  are  usually  on  meadow  land  far  removed  from  houses.  No  special  pro- 
vision for  disinfecting,  covering  or  other  treatment  is  made. 

Steam  in  Sewers.  Connecting  steam  exhaust  pipes  to  the  sewers  is  prohibited  by 
ordinance  and  is  not  done  to  any  extent. 

Street  Cleaning.  Newark  takes  great  pride  in  clean  streets,  but  the  sweepings  are 
not  allowed  to  be  pushed  into  the  catch  basins;  the  rule  is  observed  rigidly,  although 
occasionally  a  limited  amount  of  snow  is  crowded  in. 

Cast  of  Sewer  Maintenance.  The  cost  of  maintenance  in  1908  was  |63,003.49  of 
which  $13,884.51  was  chargeable  to  the  pumping  station.  There  were  4,732  basins 
cleaned  at  a  cost  of  $1.06  each  and  3.94  miles  of  sewers  at  a  cost  of  37  cents  per  foot. 
There  will  be  about  $70,000  expended  this  year  (1909)  for  maintenance  of  sewers  and 
drains. 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Into  Passaic  River.  The  sewage  of  all  that  portion  of  Newark  not  draining  to  the 
intercepting  sewer  and  its  branches  is  discharged  by  gravity  through  outlets,  without 
purification  or  treatment,  into  the  Passaic  river. 

Into  Newark  Bay.  The  sewage  that  is  received  by  the  interceptor  goes  to  a  pump- 
ing station  at  Avenue  J  and  Mills  street,  at  the  southern  limits  of  the  built  up  por- 
tion of  the  city,  and  is  pumped  thence  through  an  outfall  pipe  to  a  point  in  Newark 
bay  about  2,000  feet  from  shore  and  opposite  the  mouth  of  Bound  creek. 

Outlet  Nitisances.  The  pollution  of  the  Passaic  river  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
attention  and  legislation  for  the  last  15  years.  It  is  the  most  important  river  in  New 
Jersey  and  is  polluted  far  beyond  permissible  limits  from  any  point  of  view.  The  dry 
weather  flow  of  the  river  is  at  times  not  over  four  times  the  quantity  of  sewage  and 
manufacturing  wastes  discharged  into  it;  the  latter  are  putrescible  in  some  cases.  Fish 
have  long  since  ceased  to  inhabit  the  stream,  and  property  along  its  banks  has  depre- 
ciated in  value  from  the  unsanitary  and  unpleasant  surroundings. 

Future  Plans.    It  is  the  intention  of  the  city  to  discharge  all  dry  weather  sewage 


SEWERAGE  OF  NEWARK  317 

flow  from  the  entire  city,  excepting  the  portion  now  going  to  the  Joint  outlet  sewer,  into 
the  Passaic  valley  sewer  if  it  is  ever  constructed.  This  sower,  if  built,  will  skirt  the 
west  bank  of  the  Passaic  river  through  Newark,  extending  in  a  southeasterly  direction 
across  the  meadows  to  a  screen  chamber  and  pumping  station  near  Newark  bay. 
From  the  pumping  station  the  sewage  will  flow  by  tunnel  under  Newark  bay  and 
Bayoune  to  a  point  of  discharge  in  Upper  New  York  bay  about  one-fourth  mile  east 
of  Robbing  Reef. 

In  case  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  is  not  built  it  will  be  feasible  to  extend  the  pres- 
ent Newark  interceptor  area  to  connect  with  it  the  same  sewers  that  would  be  relieved 
by  the  proposed  Passaic  valley  sewer.  This  would  not  be  of  advantage  to  any  of  the 
cities  above  Newark. 

No  other  plans  for  the  disposal  of  Newark's  sewerage  have  been  made  and  there  is 
not  a  great  deal  of  extension  work  planned. 

THE  SEWERAGE  OF  PATERSON,  N.  J. 

General  Conditions.  Paterson,  with  a  population  in  1905  of  111,529,  lies  at  the 
Falls  of  the  Passaic  river  where  it  breaks  through  First  Mountain  and  sweeps  to  the 
east  and  south  in  an  irregular  semi-circular  bend  about  2%  miles  across. 

The  site  of  the  city  is  undulating,  with  hills  rising  from  100  to  180  feet  high. 

The  conditions  in  Paterson  are  favorable  to  satisfactory  and  economical  drainage, 
the  slopes  being  steep  and  the  distances  to  the  river  not  great  from  any  point  owing  to 
the  bend  in  the  river.  In  the  down-town  district  there  is  a  sewer  outlet  at  the  foot  of 
nearly  every  street. 

The  total  drainage  area  in  the  city  of  Paterson  is  about  8  square  miles,  of  which  a 
little  more  than  half  is  now  sewered.  The  total  ultimate  drainage  area  of  sewers  built 
is  about  83  per  cent,  of  the  whole  area. 

The  Sewers.  The  early  records  of  the  sewers  of  Paterson  were  lost  in  a  fire  some 
years  ago  and  new  maps  had  to  be  made  from  an  old  report  which  gave  only  the  sizes 
and  the  streets  in  which  sewers  had  been  built.  The  grades  could  not  be  obtained  ex- 
cept by  making  entirely  new  underground  surveys. 

The  sewers  are  on  the  combined  system,  designed  to  take  both  storm  water  and 
house  sewage.  In  1906  there  were,  from  35  drainage  districts,  about  29  public  sewer 
outlets  emptying  into  the  Passaic,  22  from  the  south  side  and  7  from  the  north  side. 
In  addition  there  are  many  sewers  from  factories  discharging  probably  10,000,000  gal- 
lons of  sewage  a  day  into  the  river. 

Of  the  larger  sewers  on  the  south  side  may  be  mentioned  a  54-inch  egg-shaped 
sewer  in  Prospect  street,  draining  441  acres,  which  is  said  to  be  adequate  for  storm 


318 


DATA   COLLECTED 


flow,  a  twin  sewer  outlet,  each  barrel  being  54  inches  diameter,  draining  319  acres,  in 
Montgomery  street,  which  is  not  adequate  for  storm  water;  a  GO-inch  egg-shaped  sewer 
in  Thirty-third  street,  draining  571  acres,  adequate  for  storm  water,  and  a  91-inch  cir- 
cular sewer  in  Market  street,  draining  1,504  acres,  adequate  for  the  area  drained,  which 
is  mainly  through  the  84-inch  circular  Vreeland  avenue  branch.  There  are  two  main 
sewers  entering  from  the  north  side;  a  72-inch  circular  sewer  in  Hamburg  avenue, 
draining  2GO  acres,  entirely  adequate,  and  a  36-inch  egg-shaped  sewer  in  North  Straight 
street,  draining  108  acres,  which  is  not  adequate.  The  Market  street  sewer  is  the  larg- 
est and  most  important  in  the  city. 

The  size,  location,  drainage  areas  and  capacities  of  the  sewers  of  Paterson  are  given 
in  Table  XX. 

TABLE  XX. 

SEWER  OUTFALLS  OF  PATERSON 


Street 

Size  and  Shape 
of  Sewer 

Present 
Drainage 
Area  in 
Acres 

Ultimate 
Drainage 
Area  in 
Acres 

Discharge 
Cu.  ft. 
per  Sec. 

Discharge  in  Inches  of 
Rainfall  per  Hour 

Side 
entering 
River 

On  present 
Area 

On  ultimate 
Area 

Prospect  

54"  Egg 
18"  Ore. 
18"  Circ. 
24"  CSrc. 
18"  Ore. 

105.8 
3.0 
3.0 
3.5 
16.5 
47.7 
348.8 
107.5 
2.0 
23.6 
44.6 
4.6 
4.0 
3.5 
102.9 
29.2 
22.0 
52.3 
552.7 

440.8 
3.0 
3.0 
3.5 
16.5 
47.7 
348.8 
107.5 
2.0 
23.6 
162.9 
8.0 
8.3 
3.5 
102.9 
29.2 
22.0 
82.5 
571.3 

173.0 
14.2 
8.2 
20.5 
5.1 

109.2 
14.0 
5.2 
9.2 
45.6 

19.1 
54.9 
24.5 
27.4 
24.2 
272.5 

1.63 
4.73 
2.72 
5.81 
0.31 

0.31 
0.13 
2.56 
0.39 
1.02 

5.43 
0.53 
0.83 
1.24 
0.46 
0.49 

0.44 
4.73 
2  72 
5.81 
0.31 

0.31 
0.13 
2.56 
0.39 
0.28 

5.43 
0.53 
0.83 
1.24 
0.29 
0.47 

South 
South 
South 
South 
South 

South 
South 
South 
South 
South 

South 
South 
South 
South 
South 
South 

Mulberry  

West  

Bank  

Main  

Bridge  

Montgomery  Twin  Sewer 

54"  Ore. 
36"  Egg 
12"  Ore. 
15"  Ore. 
30"  Egg 

Straight  

Franklin  

Keen  

Warren  

Lowe  

Wood  

East  5th,  Private  

24"  Ore. 
38"  Egg 
30"  Egg 
30"  Egg 
30"  Egg 
60"  Egg 

East  llth  

4th  avenue  

2d  avenue  

3d  avenue  

33d  street 

SEWERAGE  OF  PATERSON 
TABLE  XX— Continued 


319 


Street 

Size  and  Shape 
of  Sewer 

Present 
Drainage 
Area  in 
Acres 

Ultimate 
Drainage 
Area  in 
Acres 

Discharge 
Cu.  ft. 
per  Sec. 

Discharge  in  Inches  of 
Rainfall  per  Hour 

Side 
entering 
River 

On  present 
Area 

On  ultimate 
Area 

20th  avenue            .           

42"  Egg 
84"  Circ. 
94"  Circ. 

18.1 

820.0 
56.0 
223.0 
13.0 
30.0 
34.0 
54.0 
5.6 
21.6 

136.0 

1504.5 
56.0 
260.0 
13.0 
30.0 
34.0 
68.0 
5.6 
21.6 

74.0 
335.0 
960.0 

4.05 
0.403 
1.15 

1.29 
1.16 
0.67 
0.49 
0.83 
1.05 

0.53 
0.22 
0.63 

1.10 
1.16 
0.67 
0.49 
0.67 
1.05 

South 
South 
South 

North 
North 
North 
North 
North 
North 

Market    street    on     Vreelandl 

Market  street  .        

36"  Iron  Pipe   

Northwest  and  Hamburg  ave-\ 

72"  Ore. 
30"  Egg 
30"  Egg 
24"  Egg 
36"  Egg 
18"  Circ. 

289.0 
15.2 
20.1 
17.0 
45.3 
5.9 

North  Main  and  Temple 

Arch   

N   Straight             

Bergen  

Short                         

Population  Served  with  Sewers.  The  residences  of  eighty-nine  per  cent,  of  the 
population  or  about  99,000  were,  it  is  estimated,  connected  with  the  city  sewers  in  1905. 

Outlets.  All  the  sewers  discharge  into  the  Passaic  river.  Many  of  the  outlets  in 
ihe  upper  part  of  the  city  are  below  the  river  level  causing  the  sewers  to  be  flooded 
for  some  distance  back.  On  account  of  this  there  are  sludge  deposits  varying  from  a 
few  inches  to  over  a  foot  in  depth  in  these  sewers. 

Quantity  of  Sewage.  In  1906  two  gagings  were  made  showing  an  average  daily 
flow,  after  certain  corrections  were  applied,  of  20,900,000  gallons  per  day  on  April 
17-19,  and  12,600,000  gallons  per  day  on  June  11-12.  The  first  gaging  was  made  at 
the  time  of  year  when  the  ground  water  flow  is  the  greatest. 

In  1900  there  were  71.72  miles  of  sewers  and  1,500  catch  basins  in  the  system.  In 
1906  the  City  Engineer  estimated  there  was  about  80  miles  of  sewers.  In  1906  there 
were  8,000  house  and  500  factory  connections.  There  are  a  great  many  factories  sewer- 
ing directly  into  the  river  of  which  there  is  no  record.  In  1900  the  discharge  into  the 
river  was  estimated  at  24,000,000  gallons  daily,  of  which  7,000,000  gallons  daily  origi- 
nated in  the  factories. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWER  SYSTEM 

Inspection.  It  is  stated  in  a  tabulation  in  a  report  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Sewer- 
age Commission  (to  the  1900  Legislature,  p.  108)  that  there  was  at  that  time  a  com- 
plete system  of  inspection,  care  and  maintenance  and  that  the  sewers  were  "  kept  care- 


320  DATA    COLLECTED 

fully  clean."  Later  reports  (Hazen's  report,  June,  1906,  p.  74)  indicate  that  the  in- 
spection and  cleaning  was  not  regular  and  in  fact  in  some  cases  could  not  be  done 
at  all  because  many  of  the  manhole  heads  had  been  covered  over  in  grading  and  paving 

the  streets. 

DISPOSAL  OP  THE  SEWAGE 

Into  Passaic  River.  All  the  Paterson  sewage  is  discharged  into  the  Passaic  river  at 
the  sewer  outfalls,  without  treatment  of  any  kind.  The  result  has  been  the  creation  of 
continually  increasing  pollution  and  consequent  nuisances. 

Complaints.  Complaints  were  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  State  Board  of 
Health  in  1892,  since  which  time  there  has  been  one  continual  round  of  condemnation 
of  the  condition  of  the  river,  which  has  become  a  nuisance  to  residents  along  (lie  stream. 
has  caused  depreciation  of  property  values  and  is  objectionable  for  manufacturing  pur- 
poses. Boating,  bathing  and  other  ordinarily  pleasurable  uses  are  no  longer  possible. 

Attempts  to  Stop  Pollution  of  River.  Numerous  bills  have  been  introduced  into 
the  New  Jersey  Legislature  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  Passaic  river  from  Pater- 
son  to  Newark  bay.  Much  of  the  attempted  legislation  has  been  very  sweeping  in  its 
requirements  and  not  always  fair  to  all  interests;  nor  has  consideration  always  been 
given  the  participants  on  points  which  vitally  concerned  them.  The  last  bill,  and  the 
one  under  which  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  is  now  working  for  the  inter- 
ests of  the  whole  district,  was  approved  March  18,  1907.  This  bill  requires  the  various 
cities  to  cease  polluting  the  Passaic  after  December  12,  1912,  and  provides  the  neces- 
sary authority  to  allow  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  to  undertake  the 
work  for  all  or  any  number  of  the  various  municipalities  in  the  district. 

IMPROVED  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 

Mr.  dray's  Report.  Many  plans  have  been  suggested  and  investigated  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  sewage  disposal  of  Paterson.  Two  reports  of  prominence  are  those 
of  Samuel  M.  Gray,  C.  E.,  of  Providence,  and  Allen  Hazen,  C.  E.,  New  York. 

Mr.  Gray's  report,  dated  January  loth,  1903,  was  made  to  the  Citizen's  Association 
and  was  on  the  subject  of  the  feasibility  of  disposing  of  the  sewage  of  Paterson  inde- 
pendently of  any  other  municipality.  His  findings  were  that  Paterson  could  dispose 
of  its  sewage  independently  from  that  of  any  other  community,  and  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  not  to  cause  a  nuisance  to  anyone. 

His  recommendations  were,  in  brief,  to  locate  a  plant  consisting  of  septic  tanks 
and  sprinkling  filters  upon  land  in  Bergen  County,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  a 
short  distance  northerly  of  the  city  of  Passaic,  the  sewage  to  be  collected  by  an  inter- 
cepting sewer  in  Paterson  flowing  to  the  purification  works  by  gravity  and  being 
pumped  thence  into  the  septic  tanks.  The  estimated  cost,  for  a  daily  capacity  of 


SEWERAGE  OF  PATERSON 


321 


25,000,000  gallons,  together  with  the  interceptor,  was  f 2,070,185;  the  annual  cost  of 
operation  not  over  f  180,4 :->5. 

Mr.  1/dzcn's  Report.  On  January  1,  1906,  Allen  Hazen,  C.  E.,  was  engaged  by  the 
Joint  Committee  on  Sewage  Disposal,  the  membership  being  representatives  of  the  Tax- 
payers' Association  and  of  the  Hoard  of  Aldermen,  to  report  on  all  phases  and  possi- 
bilities of  the  disposal  of  Paterson's  sewage  in  the  most  economical  way.  The  proposi- 
lion  finally  narrowed  itself  down  to  a  comparison  between  the  cost  of  disposing  of  the 
sewage  on  land  not  far  away,  or  of  joining  the  trunk  sewer  movement  proposed  for 
the  Passaic  valley  district. 

Mr.  Hazen  made  a  careful  study  of  the  whole  problem  and  finally  recommended 
that  Paterson  enter  into  the  trunk  sewer  project  only  if  the  raw  sewage  could  be  dis- 
charged into  tide  water  without  treatment;  if  purification  were  required  then  it  would 
be  cheaper  to  treat  the  sewage  near  Paterson  and  allow  the  purified  effluent  to  flow 
to  the  sea  through  the  channel  of  the  Passaic  instead  of  a  trunk  sewer. 

Works  Proposed.  The  estimates  were  based  on  an  intercepting  sewer  5.6  miles 
long,  from  Prospect  street  to  Market  street,  varying  in  size  from  4  feet  to  6  feet 
6  inches,  and  costing  $724,900. 

From  a  small  receiving  reservoir  and  screen  chamber  centrifugal  pumps  were  de- 
signed to  deliver  the  sewage  through  G,300  feet  of  G()-inch  steel  pipe  to  a  filter  plant 
across  the  river. 

The  purification  plant  was  laid  out  on  the  same  general  lines  as  the  works  at 
i'nlumbus  and  Baltimore.  The  sludge  was  to  be  used  on  land  for  filling  or  perhaps 
taken  to  sea  in  sludge  boats.  A  72-inch  outlet  from  the  purification  plant  to  the  river 
was  to  discharge  the  effluent  into  the  Passaic. 

About  35  miles  of  new  sewers  would  be  needed  in  order  to  change  from  the  com- 
bined to  the  separate  system,  which  could  be  extended  over  a  period  of  25  to  30  years. 
The  above  system  was  compared,  as  to  cost  of  construction  and  operation,  with  dis- 
posal at  sea  through  a  trunk  sewer  in  conjunction  with  other  cities.  The  following  is 
the  comparison  for  both  systems. 


Trunk  sewer  project 

Separate  Works 

Average  capital  invested  per  capita  

$12  40 

$16  00 

Interest  and  sinking  fund  at  5^  per  capita  per  annum 

$     62 

$    80 

Operating  expenses  per  capita  per  annum  

23 

48 

Storm  water  separation  per  capita  per  annum  

10 

10 

Total  annual  cost  per  capita  

$0.95 

$1  38 

322  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  above  figures  for  the  trunk  sewer  project  are  estimated  for  a  sewer  discharg- 
ing raw  sewage  into  New  York  bay.  If  a  purification  plant  is  necessary  it  would 
cost  at  least  $0.50  per  capita  per  annum,  which,  added  to  f  0.95,  would  be  more  than 
would  be  required  for  Paterson  to  treat  her  own  sewage  at  home. 

Future  Plans  of  the  Local  Authorities.  It  is  reported  that  the  city  of  Paterson 
plans  to  discharge  her  sewage  into  the  proposed  Passaic  valley  sewer  providing  that 
project  is  carried  out  without  the  necessity  of  purifying  the  sewage  before  discharge 
into  New  York  harbor.  No  other  definite  plan  is  under  consideration. 

SEWERAGE  OF  PASSAIC,  N.  J. 

General  Topographical  Features.  The  city  of  Passaic  with  a  population  in  1905 
of  37,837,  lies  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Passaic  river  one  and  one-half  miles  below  Pat- 
erson. Passaic  has  grown  very  rapidly,  its  population  having  been,  according  to  United 
States  Census  Reports,  6,532  in  1880;  13,028  in  1890,  and  according  to  the  State 
Census,  17,894  in  1895  and  37,873  in  1905.  Its  rapid  growtli  has  been  induced  by  the 
factory  facilities  afforded  by  the  Dundee  Land  and  Power  Co.  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  city  is  located  at  the  upper  limits  of  tide  water  in  the  Passaic.  It  is  essentially  a 
manufacturing  city,  although  the  residential  population  is  large  and  increasing. 

Seuxrage.  The  area  of  the  city  is  a  little  over  three  square  miles  and  has  12 
drainage  districts  of  which  the  largest  are  622  acres  draining  to  Lafayette  street,  377 
acres  draining  to  Brook  avenue,  355  acres  draining  to  Aycrigg  avenue  and  341 
acres  draining  to  Hope  avenue.  The  Brook  avenue  area  drains  to  the  river  near  the 
southern  limits  of  the  city. 

The  sewers  are  mostly  small  and  the  total  quantity  of  sewage  discharged  daily 
not  over  about  3,500,000  gallons.  The  trade  wastes  discharged  into  the  river  daily  di- 
rectly from  the  factories  and  mills  amount  to  more  than  twice  the  city  sewage  in 
quantity. 

Ventilation  is  secured  through  perforations  in  the  manhole  covers  and  cleanliness 
by  the  relatively  steep  grades  and  the  use  of  flush  tanks  at  summits. 

The  sewers  are  designed  on  the  separate  system  although  there  are  several  com- 
bined sewers  in  use,  taking  both  sewage  and  storm  water. 

Sewage  Disposal.  Two  of  the  sewer  outlets  are  on  the  island  (factory  section) 
and  discharge  into  the  river  above  the  tail  race ;  two  discharge  into  the  main  tail  race 
at  Washington  avenue  and  Passaic  street  and  several  into  the  river  below  the  tail 
race.  All  the  sewage  and  manufacturing  wastes  go  into  the  river  without  treatment 
of  anj'  kind. 


SEWERAGE  OF  PASSAIC  323 

The  river  as  it  reaches  Passaic  is  very  foul  in  summer  from  the  Paterson  sewage, 
and  the  added  sewage  from  Passaic,  of  course,  increases  its  objectionable  qualities, 
although  the  predominating  ingredients  of  the  Passaic  trade  wastes  are  not  of  a 
putrescible  nature. 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  CITY  OF  ORANGE,  THE  TOWNS  OF  MONTCLAIR  AND 
BLOOMFIELD  AND  THE  BOROUGH  OF  GLEN  RIDGE 

UNION   OUTLET  SBWEU 

General  Topographical  Features.  Orange,  Montclair,  Bloomfield  and  Glen  Ridge 
are  high  class  residential  sections  in  the  Passaic  valley.  Orange  lies  west  of  and  ad- 
joins East  Orange  which,  in  turn  lies  west  of  and  adjoins  Newark. 

Montclair  lies  north  of  Orange  while  Bloomfield  and  Glen  Ridge  lie  north  of  East 
Orange. 

Orange,  Montclair,  Glen  Ridge  and  Bloomfield  drain  naturally  to  the  branches 
and  main  valley  of  Second  river,  which  empties  into  the  Passaic  at  the  boundary  line 
between  Newark  and  Belleville. 


Montclair  

Drainage  Area 
in  Acres. 

3  900 

Population  in 
1905. 

16  370 

Glen  Ridge  

825 

2362 

Bloomfield  

3  223 

11  668 

Orange  City  . 

1  410 

26  101 

Totals ^    9,358  56,501 

These  total  areas  and  populations  are  not  fully  served  by  sewers. 

Sewerage.  The  sewerage  in  each  of  these  communities  is  on  the  separate  system 
and  discharges  into  the  Union  outlet  sewer  which  follows  the  valley  of  Second  river. 
This  sewer  was  built  several  years  ago,  and  the  cost  apportioned  among  the  different 
municipalities  in  proportion  to  the  estimated  populations  in  the  year  1930,  these  pop- 
ulations being  based  on  second  differences  of  the  five-year  census  returns  for  the  20 
years  preceding  the  construction  of  the  sewer.  The  annual  cost  of  operation  is  appor- 
tioned on  the  basis  of  actual  use,  the  sewage  flow  from  each  town  being  gauged  by 
suitable  devices. 

Disposal  of  the  Sewage.  The  Union  outlet  sewer  discharges  the  sewage  from  the 
territory  it  serves  into  the  Passaic  river  at  Verona  avenue  in  Newark ;  no  purification 

is  effected. 

SEWERAGE  OF  EAST  ORANGE,  N.  J. 

General  Topographical  Features.  East  Orange,  with  a  population  of  25,175  in 
1905  adjoins  Newark  on  the  west  and  includes  within  its  boundaries  3.91  square 


324  DATA   COLLECTED 

miles  of  gently  rolling  country.     While  there  are  numerous  commercial  houses  iu  the 
city  it  is  essentially  a  residential  district  containing  many  fine  homes. 

The  town  is  underlaid  with  gravel  and  sand  deposits  interspersed  with  layers  of 
clay.  Much  difficulty  was  experienced  in  laying  the  sewer  from  the  large  quantities 
of  ground  water  encountered;  in  fact  the  contractor  for  this  part  of  the  work  failed 
and  threw  the  burden  of  finishing  it  on  the  township  authorities. 

Sewerage.  The  separate  system  of  sewerage  is  employed  in  East  Orange,  storm 
water  being  excluded  from  the  sewers.  When  the  plant  was  first  constructed  a  puri- 
fication plant,  embodying  chemical  precipitation  followed  by  filtration,  was  installed 
and  the  main  outlet  sewer  led  to  this  plant. 

There  were  upwards  of  55  miles  of  sewers  in  this  district  in  1905,  mostly  small  col- 
lecting pipes  leading  to  larger  mains  which  in  turn  join  the  outfall  sewer. 

The  sewers  are  provided  with  automatic  flush  tanks  supplied  with  water  from 
the  street  mains. 

Ventilation  of  the  sewers  is  afforded  through  the  perforated  manhole  covers. 

A  great  deal  of  ground  water  enters  the  sewers,  700,000  gallons  daily  being  tin- 
figures  estimated  in  1890  by  a  committee  of  investigation;  this  quantity  was  about 
equal  to  the  domestic  flow  from  the  house  connections. 

Oriyinal  Sewage  Disposal  Plant.  The  original  method  of  disposal  was,  as  above 
indicated,  by  chemical  precipitation  followed  by  filtration  through  specially  prepared 
and  underdrained  areas  of  land.  The  sewage  entered  the  works  through  a  baflled  channel 
at  the  head  of  which  the  dose  of  lime  and  alum  were  added  to  promote  the  precipi- 
tation of  the  solid  matters  in  the  sedimentation  tanks.  The  average  dose  in  the  early 
years  of  its  operation  was  one  barrel  of  lime  and  300  pounds  of  alum  per  day  at  an 
average  expense  of  about  $6  per  day  for  chemicals.  From  the  precipitation  tanks  the 
effluent  was  conducted,  after  coarse  screening  through  coke  strainers,  to  the  disposal 
fields  covering  an  area  of  some  20  acres.  The  beds  were  underdrained  by  lines  of  tiles 
at  a  depth  of  five  or  six  feet  which  discharged  into  Parrow  brook. 

The  soil  in  the  fields  proved  too  retentive  and  failed  to  pass  the  sewage  through 
freely  enough,  to  rectify  which  three  coke  beds  6  feet  wide,  5  feet  deep  and  50  feet 
long  were  added.  It  was  found,  particularly  in  winter,  that  the  natural  filter  beds 
froze  up  so  that  the  sewage  could  not  pass  through;  the  coke  beds,  on  the  other  hand, 
could  be  worked  under  all  conditions  of  weather.  This  plant  was  put  in  operation 
in  July,  1888,  and  was  the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  country.  Its  operation  was  not  sat- 
isfactory, however,  almost  from  the  start,  and  on  July  30,  1890,  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Town  Improvement  Society  of  East  Orange  to  investigate  the  seweragi- 
system  and  report  on  its  condition  and  efficiency.  This  committee  reported  February 


SEWERAGE  OF  EAST  ORANGE  325 

21,  1891,  that  the  flow  to  the  plant  from  the  1,200  house  connections  and  21  Hush 
tanks  was  averaging  somewhat  over  1,330,000  gallons  daily  of  which  700,000  gallons 
daily  represented  ground  water  leaking  into  the  sewers.  An  examination  of  the 
effluent  from  the  plant  by  Prof.  Albert  R.  Leeds  showed  a  satisfactory  degree  of  puri- 
fication. The  cost  of  the  plant  was  f  95,847.80  and  of  the  sewers,  etc.,  $322,020.64,  a 
total  of  f  417,868.44.  The  average  cost  of  operation  was  about  $9,000  per  year.  The 
committee  considered  that  the  system  was  a  success  and  could  handle  the  sewage  from 
a  larger  population,  but  expressed  the  opinion  that  ultimately  it  would  be  found 
economic;!!  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  by  gravity  to  tide  water  through  united  action 
with  adjacent  towns. 

Present  Disposal.  Shortly  after  this,  however,  the  town  of  Bloomfield  brought 
suit  to  compel  the  city  of  East  Orange  to  cease  polluting  the  brook,  and  after  pass- 
ing through  one  stage  of  trouble  to  another,  an  arrangement  was  finally  made 
whereby  the  use  of  the  purification  plant  was  discontinued  and  the  sewage  dis- 
charged into  the  Newark  sewer  system  at  Newbold  avenue,  the  cost  of  the  necessary 
sewer  connections  and  changes  being  borne  by  the  two  communities  in  accordance  with 
the  terms  of  the  agreement  entered  into  for  the  building  and  operating  of  the  sewer. 

Under  this  contract  the  city  of  East  Orange  was  allowed  to  discharge  a  maxi- 
mum of  4,000,000  gallons  of  sewage  into  the  Millbrook  sewer,  it  having  been  esti- 
mated that  the  average  flow  was  then  in  the  neighborhood  of  2,500,000  gallons  daily. 
The  connection  with  the  Newark  sewers  was  made  in  1896  since  which  time  the 
purification  plant  has  not  been  used. 

Hourly  gaugings  of  the  flow  in  1908  for  four  successive  days  showed  that  the 
dry  weather  flow  exceeded  the  amount  called  for  in  the  contract.  On  rainy  days 
the  sewer  sometimes  runs  full  under  pressure  and  discharges  into  the  Newark  sew- 
ers twice  the  amount  called  for  by  the  contract.  The  night  flow  was  found  to  be 
3,500,000  gallons,  indicating  considerable  ground  water  flow  in  the  sewer. 

In  1905  there  were  in  the  district  sewered  some  4,935  homes.  It  was  estimated 
that  a  population  of  about  20,000  was  connected  witli  the  sewers. 

Future  Plans.  East  Orange  has  the  alternative,  in  the  matter  of  sewage  disposal, 
of  joining  in  the  1'ussaic  valley  sewer  project,  purifying  her  sewage  along  modern 
lines,  or  constructing  an  independent  outlet  sewer  to  a  tidal  outlet.  No  definite  ar- 
rangement lias  yet  been  decided  upon  in  this  matter. 


326  DATA   COLLECTED 

SEWERAGE  OF  CLINTON,  GAEFIELD,  LODI,  HASBROUCK  HEIGHTS,  DELA- 
WANNA,  FRANKLIN,  NUTLEY,  AVONDALE,  BELLEVILLE,  WOOD- 
RIDGE,  CARLSTADT,  WALLINGfTON,  EAST  RUTHERFORD,  RUTHER- 
FORD, LYNDHURST,  KEARNEY,  EAST  NEWARK  AND  HARRISON. 

Setverage.  The  towns  of  Clinton,  Garfield,  Lodi,  Hasbrouck  Heights,  Delawauna, 
Franklin,  Nutley,  Avondale,  Belleville,  AVoodridge,  Lyndhurst,  Walliugton  and  East 
Rutherford  have  no  sewers. 

Sewers  on  the  separate  plan  are  now  under  construction  at  Carlstadt,  and  Ruth- 
erford with  three  outlets  to  the  Passaic  and  one  or  more  towards  the  Hackensack 
meadows,  has  a  separate  system  of  sewers.  The  quantity  of  sewage  is  small. 

Arlington  (Kearney)  and  East  Newark,  with  a  combined  area  of  about  four 
square  miles  have  the  combined  system  of  sewers.  Arlington  has  three  outlets  into 
the  Passaic,  East  Newark  one,  and  Harrison  two.  Arlington  has  one  outlet  toward 
the  Hackensack  meadows.  The  quantity  of  sewage  discharged  into  the  river  by  the 
Arlington  area  is  said  to  be  in  excess  of  7,000,000  gallons  daily. 

Future  Plans.  All  the  above  named  towns  lie  in  whole  or  in  part  in  the  valley  of 
the  Passaic  river  and  are  expected  to  join  with  Paterson,  Passaic  and  Newark  and  the 
other  cities  in  the  construction  of  the  proposed  Passaic  valley  sewers,  providing  the 
project  is  carried  forward  to  completion. 

THE  PROPOSED  PASSAIC  VALLEY  SEWER 

Origin  of  Project.  Until  about  1893  the  condition  of  the  Passaic,  while  not 
unbearable,  had  been  growing  noticeably  offensive;  in  1894  it  was  worse,  and  in 
1895  it  had  reached  a  point  that  demanded  attention.  Growing  out  of  the  agitation  over 
these  conditions  an  Act  was  introduced  into  the  State  Legislature,  which  was  approved 
February  26,  1896,  appointing  a  commission  to  consider  the  subject  of  the  pollution 
of  the  Passaic  river,  and  of  a  general  system  of  sewage  disposal  for  the  relief  of  the 
Passaic,  an  appropriation  in  the  sum  of  $10,000  being  made  to  meet  the  expenses  of 
the  investigations. 

First  Report.  The  Commission's  engineers,  Mr.  Alphonse  Fteley,  of  New  York,  and 
Mr.  Charles  E.  A.  Jacobsen,  of  Newark,  completed  their  investigations  on  February  2, 
1897,  six  months  after  their  appointment,  and  the  Commission  forwarded  its  report  to 
the  Legislature  during  the  same  month.  Briefly  stated,  the  recommendations  were, 
to  establish  a  sewerage  district  including  the  whole  of  the  country  tributary  to  the 
Passaic  below  the  great  falls  at  Paterson  and  construct  an  intercepting  sewer  along 
the  river  to  collect  all  the  sewage  discharged  therein  and  conduct  it  to  a  pumping  sta- 
tion south  of  Newark,  and  deliver  it  thence,  without  purification  to  a  terminus  into 


SEWERAGE  OF  THE  PASSAIC  VALLEY  327 

Newark  bay.  The  further  recommendation  was  made  that  if  experience  should  show 
that  a  more  complete  system  of  disposal  should  become  necessary,  the  outfall  should  be 
extended  across  Staten  Island  to  the  outer  New  York  harbor. 

Subsequent  Reports.  Since  that  report  was  made  to  the  Legislature  the  subject  has 
been  investigated  and  reinvestigated  and  reported  upon  a  number  of  times,  the  mat- 
ter eventually  taking  definite  form  by  the  establishment  of  the  limits  of  the  proposed 
district  by  Legislative  Act  in  1902.  The  plan  recommended  to  the  Legislature  of  1903 
by  this  Commission  proposed  an  intercepting  sewer  along  the  west  bank  of  the  Passaic 
river  from  the  great  falls  at  Paterson  to  a  pumping  station  011  the  Newark  meadows, 
the  sewage  to  be  pumped  thence  through  steel  force  mains  under  Newark  bay  into  a 
main  sewer  across  Bayonne  to  an  outfall  in  New  York  bay  near  Bobbins  Reef  Light. 
Tli  is  project  was  thoroughly  investigated  by  the  New  York  Bay  Pollution  Commission 
and  reported  upon  adversely  in  1905  and  1906. 

J'rasent  Commission's  Plan.  The  present  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners 
are  proceeding  under  Chapter  10,  Laws  of  New  Jersey,  Session  of  1907.  Their  report 
to  the  municipalities  lying  in  whole  or  in  part  within  the  Passaic  valley  sewerage  dis- 
trict is  dated  April  20th,  1908,  and  recommends  the  construction  of  an  intercepting 
sewer  of  greater  capacity  than  the  earlier  reports,  following  essentially  the  same  course 
from  Paterson  to  a  pumping  station  at  Newark  bay.  At  this  point  the  main  sewer 
will  be  13  feet  6  inches  in  diameter  and  at  a  depth  of  26  feet  below  high  water;  and 
pumps  are  to  lift  the  sewage  to  a  height  of  15  feet  above  high  water  to  a  well  which 
is  to  be  connected  with  a  tunnel  12  feet  in  diameter  extending  under  Newark  bay, 
Bayonne  and  New  York  bay  to  the  outfall  at  the  edge  of  the  deep  channel  near  Robbins 
Reef  Light.  The  plans  provide  for  the  passage  of  the  sewage  through  a  grit  chamber 
to  "  remove  all  gravel,  sand  and  other  heavy  matter  and  through  a  screen  chamber 
where  all  floating  matter  will  be  removed."  The  outlet  sewer  is  to  be  "extended 
by  a  number  of  smaller  outlet  pipes  at  right  angles  to  the  current  of  sea  water  so  as 
to  get  the  greatest  possible  dispersion  over  a  large  area."  The  outfall  pipes  are  to 
"  discharge  at  a  depth  not  less  than  40  feet  below  mean  high  water."  "  They  will  be 
extended  in  different  directions  and  in  varying  lengths  across  the  channel,  and  will  be 
provided  with  discharge  openings,  venting  the  sewage  in  small  units  horizontally  in 
the  direction  of  the  tidal  current  over  a  sufficient  area,  and  by  such  number  of  vents 
as  will  produce  a  rapid  assimilation  of  the  discharge  with  a  very  large  volume  of  bay 
water." 

Opposition.  When  the  report  suggesting  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  from  this  large 
and  rapidly  growing  district  into  New  York  bay  was  made  public,  adverse  criticism  was 
aroused  concerning  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  in  its  raw  or  unpurified  form  into  the 


328  DATA   COLLECTED 

harbor.  A  public  hearing  was  held  to  discuss  the  matter  before  the  Harbor  Line  Board 
in  New  York,  following  application  to  the  War  Department  by  the  Passaic  Valley 
Sewerage  Commission  for  permission  to  construct  the  outlet  sewer  into  the  harbor.  At 
this  meeting  the  views  of  many  associations  and  individuals  were  expressed  and  the 
matter  taken  under  advisement  by  the  Harbor  Line  Board.  Application  was  then 
made  by  New  York  State  to  file  an  injunction  to  prevent  the  discharge  of  the  Passaic 
valley  sewage  into  the  harbor.  The  hearing  on  this  application  was  set  for  January 
6th,  1909,  before  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  at  Washington,  1).  C.  After  the 
suit  had  been  brought  the  United  States  Government  intervened  in  the  suit  in  order 
to  become  a  co-plaintiff. 

Investigations  and  Government  Control.  In  the  meantime  Col.  Win.  M.  Black, 
Chief  Engineer  Officer,  Department  of  the  East,  reported  to  the  Adjutant  General  of 
the  East  that,  as  a  result  of  the  hearings  before  the  Harbor  Line  Board  and  personal 
examinations,  if  local  nuisances  could  "  be  avoided  and  the  quantity  of  sewage  limited 
to  an  amount  which  the  body  of  water  in  question  could  care  for,  no  evil  effects  were 
to  be  anticipated."  Working  on  these  premises  an  agreement  was  reached  between  the 
War  Department  and  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners  under  which  per- 
mission was  granted  for  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  into  the  harbor.  The  terms 
of  the  agreement  are  in  effect  that  the  sewage  must  be  screened  through  coarse  screens, 
passed  through  a  grit  chamber,  screened  through  screens  having  openings  of  four- 
tenths  of  an  inch  and  settled  for  an  hour;  that  it  must  be  discharged  into  the  harbor 
in  deep  water  through  multiple  outlets  in  a  manner  to  prevent  serious  local  nuisances 
and  that  the  discharge  shall  not  injuriously  affect  major  fish  life.  The  agreement  also 
provides  that  the  works  shall  at  all  times  be  subject  to  the  inspection  of  proper  Gov- 
ernment officers,  shall  be  capable  of  producing  the  results  called  for  and  be  operated  in 
a  manner  to  live  up  to  the  terms  of  the  agreement. 

Extent  of  the  Proposed  Works.  This  project,  as  proposed,  is  intended  to  give  relief 
to  the  Passaic  river  by  diverting  therefrom  the  sewage  of  all  the  cities  and  towns  now 
draining  into  it.  These  municipalities  and  suburban  districts  had  a  total  population 
in  1905  of  601,817,  residing  on  an  area  of  103.23  square  miles  tributary  to  the  sewer, 
76.62  square  miles  being  included  under  the  terms  of  the  Law  of  1902.  The  sewer  is 
designed  with  capacity  estimated  to  be  sufficient  to  take  the  sewage  of  a  population 
in  1940,  of  1,649,440  people,  amounting  to  357,365,200  gallons  per  21  hours,  of  which 
247,416,000  represents  house  sewage,  47,467,100  ground  water  leakage  into  the  sewers, 
and  62,482,100  gallons  the  sewage  from  manufacturing  and  trades  uses.  Thirty  munic- 
ipalities are  included  within  the  territory  to  be  served,  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  popula- 
tion iii  the  district  residing  in  Newark  and  East  Orange. 


The  Hudson  River  looking  North  from  the  Battery.     The  sewers  generally  discharge 
under  the  ends  of  the  piers 


Upper  New  York  Bay  Looking  South  from   the   Battery.     Ice   is  flowing  down  the  Hudson,  around 

the  Battery  and  up  the  East  river 


SEWERAGE  OF  THE  PASSAIC  VALLEY  329 

The  volume  of  sewage  that  will  be  discharged  from  the  Passaic  valley  sewer,  as 
soon  as  it  is  constructed,  will  be  about  one-half  of  the  present  quantity  of  domestic 
sewage  discharged  by  all  the  sewers  of  Brooklyn. 

The  sewage  as  it  will  reach  the  pumping  station,  south  of  Newark,  will  be  stale. 
Substantially  all  the  floating  solids  excepting  the  resistant  ones,  such  as  sticks  and  corks, 
will  be  ground  up  and  practically  reduced  to  a  state  of  solution  during  the  long  time 
required  for  passage  through  the  sewer.  It  is  probable  that  but  a  very  small  percent- 
age of  the  decomposable  matters  in  the  sewage  will  be  arrested  by  the  screens  before 
discharge  into  the  harbor.  Although  there  may  be  relatively  few  visible  particles  in 
the  discharged  sewage,  the  organic  matter  therein  will  be  in  a  putrefying  condition, 
and  will  have  great  avidity  for  the  already  deficient  supply  of  oxygen  in  the  harbor 
wa  ter. 

It  has  been  contended  that  the  sewage  which  it  is  proposed  to  discharge  into 
New  York  harbor  through  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  already  reaches  these  waters  by 
its  passage  through  Newark  bay  and  Kill  van  Kull.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  before  the  New  Jersey  sewage  can  reach  New  York  harbor  under  present  condi- 
tions it  will  have  been  exposed  to  the  influences  of  subsidence,  bacterial  decomposi- 
tion, oxidation  and  dispersion.  l>y  the  time  it  reaches  the  Upper  bay  it  is  much 
changed  and  in  a  greatly  diluted  condition.  The  Passaic  valley  plan  is  to  discharge 
the  sewage  in  a  crude  state,  though  freed  from  visible  suspended  matters,  into  the  cen- 
ter of  the  Upper  bay,  thereby  relieving  Newark  bay  at  the  expense  of  New  York 
harbor.  The  waters  of  the  Upper  bay  and  the  Hudson  river  are  at  present  heavily 
charged  with  sewage;  they  contain  on  ebb  tides  about  sixty-five  per  cent,  and  on  the 
average  of  ebb  and  flood  tides  about  seventy-one  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  dissolved 
oxygen  necessary  for  saturation. 

As  fish  will  not  thrive  in  waters  containing  less  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  normal 
quantity  of  dissolved  oxygen,  the  waters  of  the  Upper  bay  and  the  Hudson  river  be- 
tween Spuyten  Duyvil  and  the  Battery  on  ebb  tides  have  a  margin  of  safety  only  one- 
third  in  excess  of  the  amount  necessary  to  support  fish.  The  discharge  into  the 
Upper  bay  of  the  sewage  from  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  district,  the  amount  of  which 
would  be  about  one-tenth  of  the  quantity  of  domestic  sewage  from  the  entire  metro- 
politan district  as  soon  as  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  shall  have  been  put  in  operation, 
would  cut  down  the  safe  margin  of  dissolved  oxygen  required  for  the  support  of  finh 
life  in  the  Upper  bay  and  Hudson  river  on  ebb  tides. 

The  discharge  of  so  large  a  quantity  of  sewage  into  the  harbor  in  one  locality,  eveJi 
though  the  outlets  be  scattered  over  an  area  of  several  acres,  would  reduce  the  dis- 


330  DATA    COLLECTED 

solved  oxygen,  at  times  of  imperfect  dispersion,  to  so  low  a  point  as  to  lead  to  danger 
of  putrefaction  and  the  consequent  evolution  of  foul  odors. 

In  the  suit  which  was  brought  against  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission 
and  the  State  of  New  Jersey  by  the  State  of  New  York,  the  United  States  Government 
became  a  party  to  the  suit  by  intervention  and  the  agreement  which  was  entered  into 
between  the  United  States  Government  and  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission 
does  not  terminate  the  suit  as  between  the  State  of  New  York  and  the  Passaic  Valley 
Sewerage  Commission.  The  interests  of  the  United  States  Government  are  mainly 
in  the  prevention  of  the  shoaling  of  the  waters  which  might  interfere  with  uavi- 
gation.  The  government  is  not  essentially  interested  in  the  pollution  of  the  waters  as 
affecting  the  health  conditions  surrounding  the  City  of  New  York;  its  interest  in  this 
connection  concerns  the  health  of  the  troops  and  government  employees.  The  inter- 
ests of  the  City  of  New  York  in  the  effect  of  harbor  pollution  are  vastly  greater  than 
those  of  the  United  States  Government. 

Recommendation.  As  the  Government  has  reached  an  agreement  which  is  appar- 
ently satisfactory  for  the  protection  of  its  interests  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Com- 
mission recommends  that  the  City  of  New  York  apply  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  for  permission  to  intervene  in  the  suit  now  pending  between  the  State 
of  New  York  and  the  State  of  New  Jersey  and  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commis- 
sion, in  order  to  protect  the  public  health  and  welfare  of  its  citizens. 

Future  Prospects.  Considerable  uneasiness  has  been  felt  by  some  of  the  New 
Jersey  communities  comprised  in  this  project  owing  to  the  possibility  of  increased 
cost  due  to  the  necessity  of  partially  purifying  the  sewage  before  discharging  it,  the 
project  being  of  advantage  only  if  less  expensive  to  maintain  than  independent  purifi- 
cation plants  would  be. 


SEWERAGE  OP  THE  PASSAIC  VALLEY  331 

JOINT  OUTLET  SEWER  FOR  THE  SEWAGE  OF  IRVINGTON,  VAILSBURGH, 
SOUTH  ORANGE,  WEST  ORANGE,  SUMMIT,  MILLBURN,  AND 
PARTS  OF  ELIZABETH,  NEWARK,  ORANGE  AND  UNION  TOWN- 
SHIP 

GENERAL   FEATURES   AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Conditions.  The  district  served  by  the  Joint  outlet  sewer, 
which  is  directly  west  of  Newark,  East  Orange,  Bloomfield  and  Montclair,  lies  along 
the  small  tributaries  and  upper  valleys  of  the  Rahway  and  Elizabeth  rivers. 

The  areas  drained  may  be  characterized,  in  general,  as  non-uniform,  hilly  slopes, 
underlaid  with  all  varieties  of  formations  from  solid  rock  to  quicksand  and  water- 
bearing drift. 

Vailsburg  and  Irvington  drain  into  the  Elizabeth  river;  Summit  into  the  Passaic 
and  Rahway  and  all  the  remaining  territory  into  the  Rahway  river. 

The  tributary  areas,  populations  and  main  features  of  the  topography  are  given 
in  Table  XXI. 


332 


DATA    COLLECTED 
TABLE    XXI 

JOINT  OUTLET  SKWKR  DISTRICTS 


Municipality 

Population 

Area 

Features 

1900 

1905 

Sq.  Miles 

Elizabeth  

4,500 
4,500 
7,000 
3,000 
3,500 
5,500 
8,200 
3,500 
6,500 
2,500 
2,500 

1.08 

2.03 
1.26 
.47 
2.46 
3.63 
4.38 
6.01 
5.86 
3.90 

Lies  very  flat 
Hilly—  rock 
Hilly—  little  rock 

Non-uniform  hill  slopes 
Non-uniform  hill  slopes 
In  old  bed  —  Passaic  river 
Must  reverse  direction  of  flow  from  Pussaic  and  tunnel 

Roselle  Park 

2,000 
5,255 
2,000 
2,200 
4,608 
6,899 
2,500 
5,580 
1,800 
2,000 

South  Orange  

West  Orange  

South  Orange  Township 
Union  Township  

Totals          

34,842 

51,200 

31.08 

South  Orange's  Need  for  Sewerage.  The  first  need  for  a  system  to  care  for  the 
sewage  of  any  of  the  towns  of  this  district  was  felt  about:  1895,  when  suggestions  by 
engineers  for  South  Orange  favored  a  disposal  plant  instead  of  a  joint  outlet  sewer. 
A  farm  in  Milburu  Township  was  purchased  for  a  disposal  field  but  protests  and  n 
permanent  injunction  brought  the  project  to  an  end.  The  conrl  held  Mint  one  munici- 
pality could  not  purchase  land  in  another  for  sewage  disposal  without  consent,  and 
this  Millburn  refused  to  give. 

In  1896  F.  T.  Crane  recommended  discharging  the  South  Orange  sewage  into 
Newark  bay  north  of  Elizabeth ;  Alexander  Potter  recommended  its  discharge  into  tide 
water  south  of  Elizabeth.  Mr.  Crane's  plans  were  accepted,  and  Rudolph  Ifering  and 
James  Owen  retained  as  Consulting  Engineers  to  review  the  plans.  When  protests 
were  made  against  the  emptying  of  the  sewage  into  Newark  bay  it  was  suggested  to 
discharge  it  into  one  of  the  tributaries  of  llround  creek.  Newark  protested  against 
this  and  a  change  in  administration  stopped  all  independent  action  by  South  Orange. 

First  Joint  Action.  A  meeting  of  the  representatives  of  South  Orange,  \Vcsi 
Orange,  Irvington,  Vailsburg  and  Newark  was  held  and  on  August  10th,  1898,  Alex- 
ander Potter  was  instructed  to  make  plans,  surveys  and  estimates  "  for  a  trunk  sewer 
to  tide  water  capable  of  accommodating  the  present  and  prospective  future  population 


JOINT  OUTLET  SEWER  333 

of  these  towns,  or  portions  of  tliese  towns,  draining  towards  the  Eahway  and  Eliza- 
beth rivers."  Mr.  Potter's  first  preliminary  report  was  made  on  September  29th,  1898, 
and  contained  the  following  recommendations: 

(1)  The  adoption  of  an  outlet  into  Kill  van  Kull,  south  of  Elizabeth. 

(2)  The  sewer  to  be  27  inches  in  diameter. 

(3)  The  adoption  of  a  high  level  sewer,  keeping  out  of  river  bottoms. 

(4)  Provision  for  a  population  of  106,000. 

(5)  Provision  for  storage  tanks  where  necessary  to  equalize  flow. 

(6)  Provision  for  underdrainage  where  necessary. 

Legislation.  There  was  some  doubt  whether  the  existing  New  Jersey  Laws  would 
permit  a  collection  of  municipalities  to  act  together  in  the  desired  manner  and  a  Law 
was,  therefore,  prepared  and  enacted  to  permit  two  or  more  municipalities  in  that 
State  to  construct  a  joint  outlet  sewer. 

A  permanent  organization  under  this  Law  was  affected  March  27,  1901.  The 
State  Sewerage  Commission  gave  consent  to  the  outlet,  at  the  foot  of  Bayway,  into 
Staten  Island  Sound  "  with  the  proviso  that  should  future  exigencies  make  treatment 
necessary,  it  would  be  required,"  and  the  United  States  authorities  were  consulted 
iii  regard  to  the  discharge  of  this  sewage  into  navigable  waters,  which  point  the  govern- 
ment held  to  be  outside  of  its  jurisdiction. 

Contract  with  Elizabeth  and  other  Municipalities.  In  lieu  of  payment  for  right 
of  way  through  Elizabeth  the  following  concessions  were  agreed  upon : 

(a)  The  granting  to  Elizabeth  of  100,000  cubic  feet  per  diem  of  capacity 
in  the  trunk  sewer  along  the  length  of  Bayway. 

(&)  The  increasing  of  the  size  of  the  sewer  from  Staten  Island  Sound  to 
Woodbridge  avenue  from  42  inches  to  66  and  72  inches  in  diameter  to  provide 
for  storm  water  sewerage  facilities  for  the  lower  portion  of  Elizabeth. 

(c)     The  construction  of  a  wharf  and  bulkhead  at  the  outlet  on  the  Sound. 

Legislation  was  secured  to  allow  the  admission  into  the  organization  of  Morris- 
town,  Morris  Plains,  Chatham  and  Madison,  which  lay  outside  of  the  line  of  the  sewer. 
Roselle  Park  and  Union  Township  were  also  admitted  upon  payment  of  a  fixed  sum. 

Execution  of  Project.  Work  of  construction  was  formally  started  on  the  first 
contract  March  27th,  1902,  one  year  from  the  date  of  the  organization,  and  in  October, 
1903,  Irvington  was  allowed  to  connect  to  and  to  use  the  sewer.  This  use  put  the 
Joint  outlet  project  on  the  same  footing  as  all  other  cities  and  towns  maintaining 
outlets  at  tide  water  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  and  the  possibility  of  the  work  being 
held  up  by  injunction  from  any  source  was  at  an  end. 

The  whole  work  was  finally  completed  and  accepted  June  16,  1904.  At  this  time 
a  permanent  organization  for  the  maintenance  of  the  sewer  was  effected. 


334  DATA   COLLECTED 

ORGANIZATION   OP   MUNICIPALITIES 

For  Construction.  The  first  meeting  was  attended  by  the  governing  bodies  of  the 
municipalities  concerned.  Various  executive  officers  and  an  engineer  were  elected  by 
ballot.  Later  a  bill  was  proposed  and  enacted,  enabling  one  representative  from  each 
municipality  "  to  legally  transact  the  business  of  the  joint  meeting  for  his  munici- 
pality." 

For  Maintenance.  Practically  the  same  organization  was  effected  for  the 
maintenance  as  for  the  construction,  with  the  addition  of  inspectors  reporting  to  the 
Chief  Engineer. 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Design.  The  Joint  outlet  is  designed  for  an  ultimate  population  of  150,000.  It 
has  a  capacity  of  21,000,000  gallons  daily,  or  140  gallons  per  capita  per  day  for  the 
ultimate  population. 

Separate  System.  The  Joint  outlet  sewer  was  designed  to  take  house  drainage 
only,  but  the  municipalities  are  not  restricted  as  to  the  use  they  may  make  of  their 
allotment  of  capacity.  Each  city  pays  for  its  maintenance  on  the  basis  of  the  quantity 
discharged  by  it,  so  that  it  would  not  seem  to  be  good  business  policy  to  include  roof 
drainage  and  street  wash.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  more  or  less  storm  water  does 
enter  the  sewers  as  several  reports  mention  the  fact  of  the  sewer  being  overtaxed 
during  storms. 

Velocity  of  Flow.  It  was  the  intention  to  have  the  velocity  at  least  2.5  feet  per 
second  when  running  half  full,  but  in  most  cases  three  feet  per  second  has  been  secured. 

Recording  Gauges.  Thirteen  recording  gauges  to  register  the  depth  of  flow  in  the 
sewers  were  installed.  From  these  records  the  amount  of  sewage  delivered  by  each 
municipality  is  determined. 

Equalizing  Tank.  Provision  was  made  in  the  plans  of  both  the  east  and  west 
branches  for  storage  tanks  to  equalize  the  24-hour  flow,  as  it  was  assumed  that  50  per 
cent,  of  the  total  flow  would  be  concentrated  in  eight  hours'  time.  By  means  of  these 
reservoirs  it  was  hoped  to  double  the  capacity  of  the  main  line,  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed 
25  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  duplicating  it. 

The  Sewer.  The  main  sewer  extends  up  Bayway  and  parallel  to  the  Elizabeth 
river  to  Union  avenue,  making  provision  for  admission  of  750,000  gallons  daily  of 
Elizabeth  sewage  along  Bayway  and  for  receiving  the  sewage  from  the  Elizabeth  in- 
terceptor at  Woodbridge  avenue.  The  diameter  of  the  sewer  is  72  inches  up  to  Bur- 
lington avenue,  66  inches  to  Woodbridge  avenue,  and  42  inches  to  Union  avenue, 
where  the  east  and  west  branches  come  together.  The  main  sewer  was  built  of  brick 
except  that  cast  iron  pipe  was  used  in  crossing  under  streams.  It  was  aimed  to  keep 


JOINT  OUTLET  SEWER  335 

the  line  as  high  as  possible  to  avoid  seepage  of  ground  water  into  the  sewer  but 
even  then  about  two-thirds  of  the  trenches  were  wet  and  much  quicksand  was  en- 
countered. 

West  Branch.  The  west  branch  of  the  sewer  extends  in  a  northwesterly  direc- 
tion under  the  divide  between  the  Elizabeth  and  Railway  rivers.  The  3,000  feet  of 
tunnel  was  a  difficult  and  expensive  piece  of  work.  Just  north  of  the  Rahway  river 
crossing  the  line  branches  to  the  right  up  the  river  valley  to  receive  the  South  and 
\\Vst  Orange  and  South  Orange  Township  sewage  and  to  the  left  for  that  of  Milburn 
and  Summit.  Provision  was  made  in  the  design  for  storage  tanks  to  be  located  at 
Jefferson  avenue,  in  Orange  Township,  to  equalize  the  night  and  day  flow  when  the 
day  flow  should  equal  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  sewers. 

East  Branch.  The  east  branch  of  the  sewer  extends  up  the  Elizabeth  river  into 
Irvington  and  Vailsburg  and  drains  also  a  part  of  Newark  lying  within  this  water- 
shed. A  second  storage  reservoir  was  designed  for  this  branch ;  it  was  to  be  located 
below  the  ice  ponds  on  Union  avenue.  The  following  extract  from  the  1908  report  of 
the  State  Board  of  Health  would  indicate  that  the  time  had  arrived  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  reservoir: 

"The  trunk  sewer  .supplying  Irvington  and  Vailsburg  and  emptying  at  Bay  way 
below  Elizabeth,  is  apparently  of  insufficient  size  to  take  care  of  an  extra  amount  of 
sewage,  especially  at  times  of  heavy  rains.  To  remedy  this  two  outlets  of  15-inch  terra 
cotta  pipe  have  been  attached  to  the  trunk  sewer  at  Irvington,  emptying  into  the 
Elizabeth  river  at  a  point  opposite  the  Irvington  Cemetery."  Notice  was  served  to 
cease  polluting  the  river,  but  was  not  complied  with. 

Outlet.  The  outlet  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  Bayway,  Elizabeth.  A  special  bulk- 
head and  wharf  were  constructed  Avith  the  sewer  terminating  at  the  dock  line  in- 
stead of  in  the  center  of  the  channel  as  originally  designed.  The  State  Board  of  Health 
gave  permission  for  this  rearrangement.  The  72-inch  brick  sewer  terminates  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  wharf  in  a  7y2-foot  square  chamber  from  which  three  lengths  of  36- 
inch  cast  iron  pipe  lead  to  the  dock  line. 

Extent  of  System.  About  45  miles  of  main  sewers  and  laterals  had  been  con- 
structed up  to  1905,  about  55  miles  since  then  have  'been  put  in  and  it  is  estimated 
that  some  GO  miles  more  will  be  added  in  the  next  ten  years. 


336  DATA   COLLECTED 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SYSTEM 

Inspections.  Two  regular  inspectors  under  the  Chief  Engineer  were  allotted  ;i 
portion  of  the  sewer  to  patrol  and  report  upon  each  week;  they  also  look  after  the  re- 
cording gauges.  Frequent  trips  of  inspection  are  made  by  the  Chief  Engineer  or  one 
of  his  assistants. 

Cleaning.  Apparatus  for  cleaning  and  Hushing  and  making  repairs  arc  stored  at 
convenient  points  to  be  used  in  emergencies. 

Leakage  of  surface  water  into  the  sewer,  through  perforated  manhole  covers  has 
been  found  to  be  a  large  item.  An  average  of  1.1  gallons  per  minute  per  manhole  was 
estimated  to  enter  the  system  during  a  warm  rain  storm  on  top  of  5  to  G  inches  of 
snow.  The  remedy  was  to  raise  the  manhole  heads  in  some  cases  and  to  plug  the  holes 
in  the  covers  in  others. 

Entrance  of  Ground  Water.  Provision  was  made  in  the  design  of  the  sewer  for 
the  entrance  of  ground  Avater  in  an  amount  equal  to  one-half  of  the  sewage  flow;  less 
than  10  per  cent.,  it  is  estimated,  is  actually  found.  It  was  believed  that  the  leakage 
might  in  that  district  be  kept  down  to  25,000  gallons  per  mile  with  rigorous  inspection, 
using  cement  joints,  and  to  5,000  gallons  per  mile  using  sulphur  sand  joints. 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE    SEWAGE. 

Tidal  Discharges.  The  joint  outfall  sewer  discharges  its  contents  into  the  waters 
of  Kill  van  Kull  at  the  face  of  the  wharf  at  the  foot  of  Bayway,  Elizabeth,  through 
three  36-inch  cast  iron  pipes  with  their  inverts  placed  5.5  feet  below  low  tide  eleva- 
tion. 

Investigations.  Experiments  were  made  during  the  preliminary  investigation  to 
determine  the  limits  of  dispersion  of  the  sewage  by  casting  floats  adrift  off  the  point 
of  discharge  at  all  stages  of  the  tide.  From  these  it  was  concluded  that  the  sewage,  or 
what  was  left  of  it,  would  pass  out  of  the  Kills  on  the  subsequent  tide  without  reach- 
ing the  shore  at  any  point. 

Effects  of  Dlscliarge.  Some  eighteen  months  after  the  completion  of  the  sewer, 
Mr.  Potter  states  in  his  report  that  "  no  injurious  effects  can  be  detected,  although  the 
average  flow  of  sewage  now  exceeds  4,000,000  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours.  *  *  * 
It  is  the  opinion  of  the  writer  that  this  outlet  will  afford  a  satisfactory  means  for  the 
disposal  of  the  sewage  of  the  territory  benefited  for  all  time." 

In  1908  upwards  of  6,000,000  gallons  daily  discharged  into  Kill  van  Kull  through 
the  Joint  outlet,  and  that  conditions  may  have  changed  somewhat  is  gathered  from 
the  following  extract  from  the  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  for  1908  (p.  438). 


JOINT  OUTLET  SEWER  337 

"  This  sewer  empties  into  the  Staten  Island  Bound  below  Elizabeth    and    causes    con- 
siderable nuisance  and  pollution  in  that  body  of  water." 

Future  Condition.  There  is  now  being  constructed  in  Elizabeth  a  trunk  sewer 
and  interceptor  to  take  practically  all  of  the  dry  weather  flow  emptying  into  the 
Elizabeth  river  and  discharge  it  into  the  Joint  outlet.  This  sewer  is  42  inches  in 
diameter  and  designed  to  ultimately  carry  away  the  sewage  of  100,000  people  with  an 
allowance  of  50  gallons  of  sewage  per  capita  per  day.  It  is  thus  seen  that  ultimately 
L'50,000  people  are  expected  to  be  tributary  to  the  Joint  outlet  and  to  deliver  26,- 
000,000  gallons  of  sewage  daily  into  the  Sound  where  the  State  Board  of  Health  has 
already  called  attention  to  the  considerable  nuisance  and  pollution  caused  by  less  than 
one-fourth  of  this  amount. 

FUTURE  PLANS  OF   LOCAL  AUTHORITIES 

Disposal.  In  Elizabeth  it  is  recognized  that  in  the  future  it  may  be  necessary  to 
purify  the  sewage;  and  when  that  time  arrives  the  Joint  outlet  organization  will  co- 
operate in  taking  care  of  the  sewage  in  such  manner  as  may  prove  the  most  economical 
and  efficient. 

Ej-tcnaions.  It  is  estimated  that  about  00  miles  of  sewer  extensions  in  unde- 
veloped territory  will  be  built  during  the  next  ten  years.  The  town  of  Morristown  has 
not  gone  into  the  Joint  outlet  although  capacity  was  provided  for  it. 

SEWERAGE   OF  ELIZABETH 

GENERAL  FEATURES   AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Features.  Elizabeth  with  a  population  in  1905  of  60,509, 
is  situated  to  the  northwest  of  Staten  Island  and  to  the  west  of  Newark  bay.  It  has 
a  waterfront  of  nearly  one  mile  on  Kill  van  Kull  and  three  miles  on  Newark  bay, 
and  extends  back  from  the  water-front  about  three  miles.  The  northeastern  portion, 
from  the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey  to  Bound  creek  and  east  to  Division  street  is 
uninhabited  meadows  but  a  few  feet  above  sea  level.  Another  swamp  area  extends 
along  the  Elizabeth  river  from  Summer  street  and  Third  street  southwest  to  the 
boundary  line  of  the  city. 

The  whole  surface  of  Elizabeth  is  comparatively  flat,  the  highest  knolls  rising  to 
but  50  feet  above  sea  level.  The  east  side  has  a  rather  poorly  defined  ridge  starting 
from  North  Elizabeth  and  running  to  Elizabethport  parallel  to  and  about  one-half 
mile  distant  from  the  river.  The  slopes  on  the  west  side  are  somewhat  steeper,  par- 
ticularly near  the  river  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Grand  street. 


338  DATA   COLLECTED 

Elizabethport  drains  into  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  Newark  bay.  A  portion  of  North 
Elizabeth  east  of  the  Pennsylvania  Kailroad  drains  into  small  creeks  in  the  meadows. 
The  remainder  of  the  city  drains  into  the  Elizabeth  river. 

SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Organisation  for  Construction  and  Maintenance.  The  City  Engineer  has  charge 
of  designing  and  constructing  the  sewers;  they  are  maintained  by  the  Street  Commis- 
sioner's department.  Inspectors  for  construction  work  are  named  by  the  Street  Com- 
missioner, but  as  the  inspectors  are  not  as  a  rule  trained  for  such  duties  the  Engineer 
looks  after  the  work  with  his  own  men  whom  he  has  the  power  to  employ  and  dismiss. 
Civil  service  rules  are  not  adopted  in  Elizabeth.  Sufficient  funds  are  allotted  the 
Engineer  for  carrying  on  his  work,  but  the  funds  for  maintaining  the  sewers  are,  on 
the  other  hand  deficient. 

THE  OLD  SYSTEM 

Sewers.  The  old  sewers  in  Elizabeth  were  built  to  carry  botli  storm  water  and 
house  drainage.  They  were  not  designed  of  sufficient  size  to  carry  the  heavier  rain 
storms  from  fully  developed  areas  and  are  inadequate,  particularly  iu  Elizabethport 
where  at  times  the  manhole  covers  are  thrown  off  by  the  pressure  from  the  Hoods 
within  as  the  excess  water  escapes  and  floods  the  streets.  The  larger  sewers  are  all 
made  of  brick  and  are  egg-shaped  or  circular.  Concrete,  as  a  material  of  construction 
for  sewers,  is  not  favored  in  Elizabeth. 

Very  little  ground  water  enters  the  sewers  of  Elizabeth.  A  portion  of  the  ex- 
cavation for  the  new  interceptor  was  through  solid  rock,  which  was  shattered  by  the 
blasting  and  it  is  thought  that  ground  water  may  follow  along  the  outside  of  the  sewer 
barrel  and  a  small  amount  leak  into  the  sewer;  serious  trouble,  however,  is  not  antici- 
pated. 

Old  River  Outlets.  There  are  twenty-one  outlets  of  various  sizes  emptying  into 
the  Elizabeth  river;  one  of  the  largest  being  the  7-foot  Mill  lane  or  Westfield  avenue 
sewer.  This  sewer  drains  a  residential  area  of  some  1,200  acres  north  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Kailroad  and  east  of  the  river,  where  the  houses  are  far  apart  and  the  proper- 
ties are  not  yet  fully  developed.  For  a  mile  south  of  Westfield  avenue  sewers  dis- 
charge into  the  river  at  the  foot  of  nearly  every  street,  A  42-inch  brick  sewer  down 
Third  street  empties  into  the  river  near  its  mouth;  this  sewer  is  laid  on  a  plank  grill- 
age across  the  swamp  and  has  given  good  service. 

Elevation  of  Outlets.  Most  of  the  sewers  discharge  under  water  at  high  tide,  the 
invert  being  in  the  neighborhood  of  low  water. 


SEWERAGE  OP  ELIZABETH  339 

NEW   SYSTEM 

Design.  The  Elizabeth  interceptor  is  circular  in  shape,  with  a  vitrified  brick 
invert  and  common  brick  arch.  The  carrying  capacity  was  calculated  using  Kutter's 
formula  with  n— .013.  The  slope  is  uniformly  one  foot  in  1,000,  and  running  half  full 
the  maximum  velocity  is  estimated  at  3.2,  and  the  minimum  at  2.5  feet  per  second. 

Sizes.  The  Joint  outlet  sewer,  from  South  Orange  is  66  inches  in  diameter, 
from  Woodbridge  avenue  to  Burlington  avenue  and  the  72  inches  in  diameter  to  the 
outlet.  The  agreement  by  which  this  sewer  was  permitted  to  pass  through  Elizabeth 
gave  to  her  unlimited  capacity  from  Woodbridge  avenue  south  and  100,000  cubic  feet 
capacity  per  day  north  of  this  point. 

The  Elizabeth  interceptor  is  42  inches  in  diameter  from  the  pumping  station  to 
the  Joint  outlet  and  40  inches  from  the;  pumping  station  north,  diminishing  in  size  ac- 
cording to  the  territory  drained  into  it  by  the  various  sewers. 

Capacity.  A  population  of  100,000  some  100  years  hence  has  been  provided  for. 
This  is  equivalent  to  five  persons  on  a  lot  25  feet  wide  and  100  feet  deep,  or  eighty- 
seven  people  per  acre.  The  amount  of  sewage  per  capita  was  estimated  at  50  gallons 
per  day  with  half  flowing  off  in  six  hours;  or  at  the  rate  of  100  gallons  per  capita  per 
day. 

By  deducting  the  water  used  by  the  factories  from  the  total  metered  consumption, 
60  gallons  per  capita  per  day  was  found  to  be  the  amount  used  for  domestic  consump- 
tion, including  waste. 

Ventilation.  Ventilation  of  the  sewers  is  accomplished  by  using  perforated  man- 
hole covers  through  which  the  air  circulates. 

Interceptor.  At  the  present  time  an  interceptor  is  being  constructed  to  collect 
the  dry  weather  flow  from  all  of  those  sewers  now  emptying  into  the  Elizabeth  river 
from  Westfield  avenue  south  to  Summer  street;  this  interceptor  has  two  branches  on 
the  east  side  which  cross  the  river  at  South  street  and  Pearl  street  respectively. 

Pumping  Station.  A  pumping  station  is  provided  at  Summer  street  and  Clark- 
son  avenue  to  raise  the  sewage  some  16  feet,  which  is  sufficient  to  discharge  it  into  the 
Joint  outlet  sewer  at  Woodbridge  avenue  and  Bayway. 

Three  8-inch,  centrifugal  pumps  direct  connected  by  vertical  shafts  to  16  horse- 
power motors  are  being  installed  at  the  pumping  station.  The  motors  will  be  auto- 
matically started  and  stopped  by  a  large  float  resting  on  the  sewage  in  the  pump  well ; 
this  float  makes  and  breaks  the  electrical  connection  at  certain  fixed  levels.  An  at- 
tendant is  expected  to  visit  the  float  two  or  three  times  a  day  in  addition  to  looking 


340 


DATA   COLLECTED 


after  the  various  tide  and  intercepting  valves  at  the  points  of  connection  with  the 
combined  sewers. 

Discharge  Outlet.  The  discharge  of  the  Joint  outlet  is  at  the  foot  of  Bayway 
into  the  Kill  van  Kull.  This  point  is  looked  upon  at  Elizabeth  as  one  of  the  most 
favorable  obtainable,  and  as  satisfactory,  the  water  being  deep  and  the  currents  swift 
enough  to  carry  the  sewage  away. 

Extent  of  System.  The  number  of  miles  of  sewers,  number  of  outlets  and  house 
connections,  the  estimated  population  served  by  the  sewers,  and  data  on  the  amount  of 
water  consumed  are  given  in  Table  XXV. 

TABLE   XXV 

GROWTH  OF  SEWER  SYSTEM  OF  ELIZABETH 


Miles  of 
sewers 

Number  of 
outlets 

Estimated 
number  of  house 
connections 

Estimated 
population 
served 

Water  Consumption 
per  capita 

Total 

Domestic 

1900  

29 
42 
69.7 

13 

29 

50,000 

150 

60 

1905 

1908  

1909     .             

10,000 

60,000» 

•It  Is  estimated  that  half  this  population  Is  tributary  to  the  new  Interceptor. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE   SEWERAGE   WORKS 

Cleaning.  The  streets  of  Elizabeth  are  kept  fairly  clean  and  the  sewer  catch 
basins  are  cleaned  at  varying  intervals.  The  Street  Commissioner  does  not  allow  the 
street  sweepers  to  push  sweepings  into  the  sewers;  the  rule  is  thoroughly  enforced. 
There  is  not  sufficient  appropriation  to  clean  the  sewers  and  basins  as  often  as  desir- 
able. The  basins  are  comparatively  small  and  trapped  with  a  flagstone.  The  sewers 
and  basins  are  cleaned  by  hand. 

Disposal  of  Cleanings.  The  cleanings  from  sewers  and  basins  are  dumped  upon 
meadow  lands  together  with  the  garbage.  The  dumps  are  too  far  from  houses  to  cause 
any  nuisance ;  it  is  realized,  however,  that  the  time  will  come  when  this  will  not  be 
permitted  and  some  other  system  of  disposition  will  have  to  be  devised. 

DISPOSAL   OF   THE   SEWAGE 

Tidal  Discharge.  The  Joint  outlet  sewer  empties  into  Kill  van  Kull  at  the  foot 
of  Bayway,  Elizabeth,  in  addition  to  which  there  are  four  other  large  sewers  emptying 


SEWERAGE  OF  ELIZABETH  341 

into  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  Newark  bay.  The  Elizabeth  street  sewer  has  a  branch  in- 
terceptor along  Front  street  draining  the  sewers  in  four  streets  to  the  east  of  Eliza- 
beth street.  A  4-foot  by  5-foot  6-inch  sewer  running  down  Truinbull  street  drains  the 
eastern  portion  of  Elizabethport;  the  lower  end  of  this  sewer  running  through  the 
property  of  the  Singer  Manufacturing  Company  was  built  by  that  company  in  consid- 
eration of  which  they  were  allowed  to  close  the  street. 

M  endow  Outlets.  A  combined  sewer  in  Alina  street  and  a  storm  water  sewer  in 
Fairmount  avenue,  taking  a  small  portion  of  house  drainage,  empty  into  small  tidal 
creeks  in  the  meadows. 

River  Outlets.  The  21  outlets  into  the  Elizabeth  river  will  be  done  away  with, 
except  for  storm  water  overflow,  when  the  new  interceptor  is  completed  and  put  in 
service. 

Nuisances.  The  river  outlets  have  been  very  offensive  and  have  caused  extensive 
filling  in,  particularly  by  the  Mill  lane  sewer. 

Mr.  W.  If.  Luster,  Jr.,  City  Engineer  of  Elizabeth,  describes  the  condition*  of  the 
river,  thus : 

"  Sewage  has  made  deposits  along  its  sides  and  bed  and  has  caused  it  not 
only  to  be  an  unsightly  and  forbidding  spectacle  to  travellers  over  the  bridges, 
but  we  have  its  odor  whenever  the  weather  is  warm  enough  to  cause  fermenta- 
tion of  the  deposited  filth." 

Complaints.  No  suits  have  been  instituted  on  account  of  the  condition  of  the 
river,  but  efforts  to  have  the  offensive  conditions  abated  were  begun  in  the  early 
nineties.  In  189(5  Mr.  Francis  Collingwood  reported  on  the  situation  and  suggested 
means  for  taking  the  dry  weather  flow  out  of  the  river  and  pumping  it  to  the  Kill  van 
Kull  through  Bayway. 

No  complaint  is  made  of  conditions  at  the  outlets  of  the  Elizabethport  sewers  al- 
though these  all  empty  at  the  bulkhead. 

FUTURE  PLANS  OF   LOCAL  AUTHORITIES 

Ultimate  Disposal.  It  is  recognized  that  at  some  future  date  it  will  be  necessary 
to  purify  the  sewage  of  Elizabeth  before  discharging  it  into  a  stream  or  body  of  tidal 
water.  Looking  forward  to  this  time,  a  tract  of  meadow  land  to  the  south  of  the  pump- 
ing station  has  been  suggested  as  the  proper  point  to  treat  not  only  the  sewage  of 
Elizabeth  but  probably  that  coming  down  the  Joint  outlet  sewer.  No  study  has  been 
given  to  the  type  of  purification  required  nor  to  general  plans  for  collecting  the  sewage 
of  Elizabethport. 


*New  Jersey  State  Sewerage  Commission's  Report  for  1909,  p.  128 


342  DATA   COLLECTED 

SEWEKAGE  OF  THE  HACKENSACK  VALLEY 

The  Hackensack  river  lies  between  the  Passaic  and  the  Hudson,  and  flows  nearly 
south  into  the  head  of  Newark  bay.  The  principal  towns  in  the  Hackensack  valley, 
within  the  limits  of  the  metropolitan  district,  are  Tenafly,  Englewood,  Hackensack, 
Kidgefield  Park,  Kidgefield,  Mossmere,  Palisades  Park  and  Leonia.  Several  of  these 
towns  have  sewerage  systems  which  discharge  into  the  Hackensack  river  or  its  tribu- 
taries. 

To  the  north  of  the  metropolitan  district  are  a  few  other  small  towns  draining  into 
the  river. 

SEWERAGE   OF  HACKENSACK 

Hackensack,  with  a  population  of  between  12,000  and  14,000,  lies  four  and  one- 
half  miles  east  of  Paterson  and  Passaic.  The  sewerage  problem  of  Hackensack  has  been 
comparatively  simple,  except  for  the  complications  arising  from  the  necessity  of  dis- 
charging the  sewage  at  a  low  elevation  and  also  those  involved  in  the  construction  of 
combined  sewers  with  sufficient  capacity  to  provide  for  the  future  growth  of  the 
borough.  Of  the  four  main  outfall  sewers,  the  most  northerly  is  the  Anderson 
street  sewer,  an  old  5-foot  brick  sewer  of  circular  section,  built  35  years  ago,  the 
invert  of  which  was  laid  in  a  wooden  cradle  without  mortar  joints  to  allow  it  to  serve 
to  some  extent  as  an  underdrain  for  the  soil.  One  branch  of  this  sewer  extends  about 
a  mile  to  the  north  through  Fairmount;  the  other  principal  branch  swings  over  slight- 
ly to  the  south  and  runs  out  the  main  street  leading  through  Maywood  to  Paterson  and 
Eidgewood.  This  branch  is  about  three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  length.  Both  branches  of 
this  sewer  reduce  in  size  as  higher  elevations  are  reached. 

The  next  sewer  to  the  south  is  also  a  5-foot  sewer,  known  as  the  Main-Bridge  street 
sewer.  This  discharges  into  the  Hackensack  river  north  of  the  bridge  across  that 
stream.  The  tributaries  of  this  sewer  extend  up  Main  street  and  other  streets  parallel 
thereto  to  beyond  the  tracks  of  the  New  York,  Susquehanna  &  Western  Railroad,  and 
drain  the  greater  part  of  the  city  south  of  the  territory  that  is  tributary  to  the  Ander- 
son street  sewer.  Just  to  the  south  of  the  bridge,  and  below  the  discharge  outlet  of 
the  Main  street  sewer,  is  a  reinforced  concrete  sewer  4  feet  by  9  feet  in  section,  known 
as  the  creek  sewer.  This  has  a  storm  water  outlet  to  the  creek,  and  also  a  pipe  exten- 
sion to  carry  the  dry  Aveather  flow  out  to  the  Hackensack  river.  It  extends  back  to 
near  the  New  Jersey  and  New  York  Railroad  tracks  with  a  branch  extending  north- 
erly and  draining  a  considerable  territory  to  the  west  of  the  tracks.  It  serves  to  re- 
lieve the  Main  street  sewer  from  some  of  the  storm  water  which  originally  was  tribu- 
tary thereto  and  caused  serious  sewer  floods. 


SEWERAGE  OF  HACKENSACK  VALLEY  343 

One-quarter  of  a  mile  south  of  the  outlet  of  the  creek  sewer  a  3-foot  brick  sewer 
discharges  into  a  small  estuary  of  the  Hackensack  river  and  takes  the  sewage  of  the 
balance  of  the  Hackensack  territory. 

SEWERAGE   OF  BOGOTA 

Across  the  river  from  Hackensack  lies  a  small  settlement  called  Bogota  which 
has  three  sewers  discharging  into  the  Hackensack  river;  a  2-foot  brick  sewer  which 
empties  into  the  river  about  one-fourth  of  a  mile  above  the  New  York,  Susquehanna  & 
Western  Railroad  bridge,  a  12-inch  sewer  emptying  into  the  river  at  the  Bogota  rail- 
road station  and  another  small  pipe  sewer  emptying  in  about  one-eighth  of  a  mile 
below  the  last  mentioned  sewer. 

SEWERAGE  OF   UIDGEFIELD  PARK 

Ridgefield  Park,  which  has  a  population  of  between  2,000  and  3,000,  lies  upon  a 
narrow  strip  of  ground  rising  to  a  height  of  a  little  over  100  feet  above  the  Hacken- 
sack meadows.  The  most  northerly  sewer  in  Ridgefield  Park  is  three  feet  in  diameter 
and  empties  into  the  Hackensack  river  about  one-half  mile  above  the  railroad  station. 
A  3-foot  6-inch  brick  sewer  enters  the  river  at  Mt.  Vernon  street,  near  the  railroad 
station,  another  of  the  same  size  enters  at  Brinckerhoff  avenue,  a  third  sewer  of  the 
same  size  at  the  Tea  Neck  road  and  a  3-foot  sewer  at  Ridgefield  avenue,  near  the  draw- 
bridge. The  sewers  of  Hackensack  and  Ridgefield  Park  are  all  on  the  combined  plan. 

THE  SEWERAGE  OF  THE  OTHER  TOWNS  ON  THE    WEST   SIDE   OF   THE   HACKENSACK   VALLEY 

Of  the  other  towns  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hackensack  valley  below  Hackensack, 
Hasbrouck  Heights  and  Woodbridge  have  no  sewers,  but  Carlstadt  has  a  system  of 
separate  sewers  just  installed,  but  not  yet  in  operation;  the  sewage  is  to  be  pumped 
to  settling  basins  from  which  it  is  to  be  discharged  into  a  canal  or  small  stream 
tributary  to  Berry  creek. 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  TOWNS  ON  THE  EAST  SIDE  OF  THE  HACKENSACK  VALLEY 

Ridgefield.  Ridgefield  is  a  settlement  of  about  750  people,  on  the  road  leading 
from  Ridgefield  park  to  Edgewater.  The  sewerage  works  consist  of  one  outlet  pipe 
discharging  into  a  drainage  channel  leading  to  the  Hackensack  river  from  near  the 
Ridgefield  railroad  station. 

Mossmere  and  Leonia,  the  next  settlements  north  of  Ridgefield,  have  a  population 
of  about  1,500  and  are  sewered  through  one  12-inch  pipe  to  Overpeck  creek. 


344  DATA   COLLECTED 

Palisades  park,  with  a  population  of  911  in  1905,  is  served  by  two  12-inch  pipes 
leading  to  Overpeck  creek,  one  being  located  at  the  end  of  Central  boulevard  and  the 
other  at  the  end  of  Edsall  boulevard.  At  Leonia  which  is  the  next  town  above 
Palisades  pai'k  a  12-inch  pipe  leads  to  Overpeck  creek  from  about  the  center  of  thp 
town. 

SEWERAGE  OF  EXOLEWOOD 

Englewood  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  suburban  towns,  topographically,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  The  City  of  New  York.  It  is  justly  celebrated  for  its  beautiful  trees 
and  homes;  its  population  in  1903  was  7,922. 

Englewood  is  completely  sewered  on  the  separate  plan,  the  sewerage  works  being 
controlled  by  a  company  operating  under  a  franchise.  Sewage  is  collected  from  the 
various  small  laterals  to  a  main  outfall  pipe  leading  to  a  canal  which  discharges 
through  the  marshes  into  Peapack  creek  at  the  head  of  its  tidal  channel. 

This  canal  has  been  the  subject  of  much  complaint,  and  many  threats  have  been 
made  by  property  owners  to  compel  the  sewerage  company  to  abate  the  nuisance 
created  by  its  works.  The  extent  of  the  changes  and  improvements  that  have  been 
made  appear  to  have  consisted  usually  of  cleaning  out  the  canal  when  the  complaints 
have  been  so  persistent  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  ignore  them. 

FUTURE  PLANS  FOR  THE   IIACKENSACK  VALLEY 

Owing  to  the  considerable  growth  of  the  villages,  principally  on  the  Peapack  and 
Tienekill  creeks,  much  concern  has  been  felt  as  to  the  necessity  for  improved  methods 
of  dealing  with  the  municipal  wastes  from  these  communities.  This  has  lately  brought 
together  several  of  the  prominent  citizens  of  the  district  for  the  purpose  of  discussing 
the  feasibility  of  starting  a  movement  for  the  construction  of  a  joint  sewer  from 
Tenafly  to  a  purification  plant  to  be  located  near  the  confluence  of  the  Peapack  and 
Hackensack  rivers.  This  plan  would  be  in  consonance  with  the  action  that  has  been 
taken  by  the  citizens  of  other  portions  of  the  metropolitan  territory  in  that  vicinity. 

The  only  important  source  of  pollution  of  the  Hackensack,  above  the  town  of 
Hackensack  is  at  the  village  of  Delford,  with  a  population  of  841,  where  the  Hacken- 
sock  Water  Company  has  its  main  supply  dam  and  water  filtration  plant.  New  Mil- 
ford  and  Oradell  together  are  known  as  Delford,  and  are  sewered  on  the  separate  plan, 
one  outlet  being  an  18-inch  pipe  discharging  into  the  river  from  the  west  below  the 
water  company's  dam,  the  other  being  a  12-inch  pipe  emptying  into  the  tail  race. 


SEWERAGE    OF    BAYONNE  345 

SEWERAGE  OF  BAYONNE,   N.  J. 

GENERAL  FEATURES   AND  CONDITIONS 

T(>ix>uniii1ii<-<i1  CJuiractcrixlics.  Bayoune,  with  a  population  in  1905  of 
42,2I>2,  is  situated  on  a  peninsula  directly  south  of  Jersey  City,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Morris  canal.  The  city  is  about  three  miles  long  and,  as  far  south 
as  Constable  Hook,  about  three-fourths  of  a  mile  wide.  It  has  a  water  frontage  of 
over  ten  miles,  Newark  bay  being  on  the  west,  Kill  van  Knll  on  south  and  New  York 
bay  on  the  east. 

Bayonne  is  an  extension  of  Bergen  Hill,  which  here  is  fairly  steep  on  the  west  side 
and  comparatively  gradual  in  slope  on  the  east  side;  this  is  particularly  true  from 
about  Thirtieth  street  north. 

The  natural  drainage  is  down  the  streets  running  east  and  west,  either  way  from 
the  summits,  into  the  bay  and  southeast  into  Kill  van  Kull.  There  are  one  or  two 
exceptions  to  this  system  as  laid  out  in  the  plan  many  years  ago.  The  Ingram  avenue 
and  Sixteenth  street  sewers  drain  territory  ,from  some  distance  to  'the  north.  The 
land  area  of  Bayonne  is  about  four  square  miles,  the  water  area  about  2.13  square 
miles. 

SEWERAGE    WORKS 

Organisation  for  Construction  and  Maintenance.  The  City  Engineer  designs  and 
constructs  new  sewers,  which,  after  completion  are  turned  over  to  the  Street  Commis- 
sioner for  maintenance.  The  City  Engineer  has  five  civil  service  assistants  engaged  on 
sewer,  water  pipe  and  street  improvement  work.  The  Street  Commissioner  has  only 
special  appropriations  for  sewer  work,  and  must  ordinarily  use  men  from  the  street 
cleaning  force  to  clean  basins  and  sewers. 

Old  Hyxtem.  The  present  combined  system  was  designed  and  adopted  some  ten 
years  or  more  ago.  It  is  not  known  to-day  upon  just  what  basis  the  sizes  were  de- 
termined. It  is  said  that  many  of  the  sewers  are  entirely  too  large  for  the  require- 
ments, and  in  consequence  are  not  flushed  at  any  time  except  during  the  heaviest 
storms. 

New  System.  The  plans  for  the  whole  peninsula  are  laid  out  on  this  old  plan  and 
many  of  the  later  sewers  are  put  in  larger  than  really  necessary  in  conformity  with 
the  adopted  plan,  because  it  requires  a  good  deal  of  time  to  get  an  amendment  or  ordi- 
nance of  change  through  the  Board  of  Aldermen,  and  they  are  loth  to  consider  any  de- 
partures from  the  accepted  map.  The  general  scheme  is  to  start  at  the  outlet  with  a 
30-inch  to  48-inch  brick  sewer  diminishing  in  size  to  10-inch  or  12-inch  vitrified  pipes 
at  the  summits. 


346 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Ventilation.  Manhole  covers  are  perforated  to  allow  free  ventilation  from  man- 
hole to  manhole. 

Outlets.  The  outlets  for  the  sewers  are  26  in  number,  3  being  into  New  York  bay, 
11  into  Kill  van  Kull  and  12  into  Newark  bay,  located  as  given  in  Table  XXVI. 


TABLE   XXVI 

OUTLETS  OF  SEWERS  OF  BAYONNE 


Location 


Diameter 


Drainage  area 
acres 


Disposal 


East  47th  street. . . . 

East  34th  street 

Avenue  F 

East  16th  street 

Ingraham  avenue. . . 

Hobart  avenue 

Lexington  avenue .  . 

Lord  avenue 

Avenue  D 

Avenue  C 

Humphreys  avenue . 

Trask  avenue 

Rathburn  avenue. . . 
Hudson  boulevard. . 

West  3d  street 

West  5th  street 

North  street 

West  16th  street. . . 

West  22d  street 

West  24th  street... 
West  25th  street . . . 
West  29th  street . . . 
West  30th  street . . . 

West  33d  street 

West  39th  street... 
West  59th  street . . 


0" 
0" 
6" 
6" 
0" 
6" 
6" 
6" 
0" 
0" 
0" 
0" 
6" 
0" 
0" 
0" 
6" 
0" 
0" 
6" 
0" 
6" 
6" 
0" 
6" 
0" 


150 

235 

31 

350 

245 

13 

8 

10 

12 

24 

9 

11 

8 

28 

30 

35 

9 

18 

72 

13 

75 

8 

8 

100 
30 
65 


New  York  bay 


U  It 


Kill  van  Kull 


II  tl  II 


II  It  II 


II  It  tl 


«  II  II 


II  II  tt 


II  II  It 


It  II  II 


Newark  bay 


SEWERAGE  OF  BAYONNE 


347 


Extent  of  the   System.     The  exteiit  of  the  sewer  system  is  indicated  in  Table 
XXVII. 

TABLE   XXVII 

GROWTH  OF  SEWER  SYSTEM  OF  BAYONNE 


Mileage  of  Sewers 

Number  of 
Outlets 

Number  of 
Basins 

Number  of  House 
Connections 

Built  during 
year 

Total 

1900  

5.31 

.69 
.62 
.00 
2.38 

21. 

26.31 
27.90 
28.52 
29.12 
31.50 

9 

10 
25 

380 
500 

4,750 

1901           

1902       

1903           

1904             

1905               

1906                  

1907                 

1908                      

MAINTENANCE   OF    THE    SEWERS. 

Cleaning.  The  work  of  maintenance  covers  principally  the  spring  cleaning  of  the 
basins  down  to  the  trap  so  that  the  water  may  flow  out;  other  cleanings  are  given 
after  severe  storms,  or  upon  complaint.  The  sewers  are  cleaned  by  hand  by  the 
maintenance  force  when  clogged  up.  Contracts  for  cleaning  certain  sewers  have  been 
let  at  various  times. 

Disposal  of  Cleanings.  The  cleanings  are  carted  to  public  garbage  dumps  on  the 
salt  meadows  and  covered  with  ashes  or  earth  in  order  that  no  nuisance  may  be 
created. 

DISPOSAL  OF  THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal  Discharge.  All  the  sewers  discharge  into  the  tide  waters  of  New  York  bay, 
Newark  bay  or  Kill  van  Kull,  many  of  them  at  the  bulkhead  line,  but  some  few  are 
extended  out  to  deep  water. 

Kanitary  Outlets.  Following  complaints  of  nuisance  there  were  installed  at  two 
different  points  house  drainage  outlets  of  10-inch  cast  iron  pipe  carried  out  to  deep 
water.  A  new  sewer  in  Avenue  F  has  also  provided  for  the  dry  weather  flow  in  the 
same  way.  Trouble  has  been  experienced  from  the  choking  of  the  inlet  into  the  cast 
iron  pipe  with  sticks. 


348  DATA   COLLECTED 

Nuisances.  The  residents  living  on  the  Newark  bay  water-front  object  very 
strenuously  to  the  further  pollution  of  its  waters  and  are  likely  to  oppose  any  legisla- 
tion having  such  an  object. 

Future  Plans.  No  plans  have  been  made  or  studied  to  dispose  of  Bayonnc's 
sewage  otherwise  than  at  present.  As  previously  mentioned,  the  drainage  plan  for 
Bayonne  has  all  been  worked  out,  accepted  and  the  greater  part  of  it  built.  Disposal 
plants  or  pumping  the  sewage  to  sea  are  not  under  consideration. 

SEWERAGE  OF  JERSEY  CITY,  N.  J. 
GENERAL  FEATURES   AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Features.  Jersey  City,  with  a  population  in  1903  of 
232,099,  is  situated  between  the  waters  of  Newark  bay,  the  Ifackensack  river  and  Ten- 
horn  creek  on  the  west  and  New  York  bay  and  Hudson  river  on  the  east;  it  has  an 
area  of  about  ten  square  miles  provided  with  sewerage,  and  is  the  terminus  of 
numerous  railroads,  its  whole  Hudson  river  water-front  being  appropriated  for  docks. 

The  striking  geological  feature  of  Jersey  City  is  the  central  ridge  of  trap  about 
SO  feet  high  extending  from  north  to  south.  The  eastern  slope  drops  quite  sharply 
about  one  mile  inland  from  the  Hudson.  The  western  slope  breaks  down  somewhat 
less  abruptly  to  the  meadows.  The  ridge  itself  is  approximately  a  mile  in  width. 

The  topography  of  Jersey  City  naturally  requires  a  great  many  relatively  short 
sewers  emptying  either  side  of  Bergen  Hill.  There  are  no  large  natural  water  courses 
to  indicate  where  best  to  locate  the  main  sewers. 

HEWEUAGK   WORKS 

Old  Sewers.  The  older  sewers  of  Jersey  City  were  constructed  of  cast  iron, 
steel,  vitrified  pipe  and  brick.  In  many  cases  the  brick  sewers  have  had  to  be  replaced 
on  account  of  inadequacy  and,  in  some  cases,  from  poor  construction.  In  the  report  of 
the  State  Sewerage  Commission  for  1900  four  sewers  were  mentioned  as  being  in- 
adequate for  storm  service.  Three  of  the  four  have  since  then  been  relieved. 

The  cast  iron  and  riveted  steel  sewers  were  adopted  to  take  care  of  the  pressure 
under  which  many  of  the  sewers  draining  the  hill  sections  are  subjected.  Ten  years 
ago  there  were  8.1  miles  of  these  pressure  sewers  ranging  from  10-inch  to  06-inch 
diameter. 

Organization  for  Construction  and  Maintenance.  The  Chief  Engineer  to  the 
Board  of  Street  and  Water  Commissioners  of  Jersey  City  has  an  organization  of  14 
men,  an  Assistant  Chief  Engineer,  three  assistant  engineers  and  ten  "rodmen,  in- 


SEWERAGE  OF  JERSEY  CITY 


349 


specters,  etc.  These  are  all  under  city  civil  service  regulations.  It  is  said  that  tlie 
constitutionality  of  the  civil  service  laws  for  cities  of  New  Jersey  is  now  under  legal 
investigation. 

Design.  The  engineering  department  of  the  board  has  charge  of  the  design,  con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  sewers  as  well  as  of  street  work  and  water  supply.  The 
engineers  and  inspectors  are  assigned  to  whatever  work  may  be  on  hand.  All  of  the 
public  Avork  is  thus  correlated  through  the  Chief  Engineer. 

It  is  the  general  policy  to  carry  the  combined  sewage  out  to  the  water-front 
through  numerous  outlets;  nearly  every  street  running  to  the  river  has  its  sewer.  The 
sections  back  on  the  hills  deliver  sewage  to  the  water-front  under  head  so  that  the 
low  level  sewers  cannot  be  connected  to  them  in  many  cases. 

Formula,.  Kutter's  formula  for  discharge  is  used,  Avith  u=.013  and  a  rainfall  of 
V/2  inches  per  hour  is  allowed  for.  It  is  apparent  that  this  will  not  provide  for 
storms  of  great  intensity.  The  rains  of  last  spring  gorged  practically  all  of  the  Jersey 
City  sewers. 

Materials.  A  great  deal  of  the  recent  work  has  been  of  riveted  steel  and  rein- 
forced concrete  construction.  Vitrified  tile  are  used  in  sizes  up  to  21-inch. 

Outlets.  In  general  the  outlets  discharge  below  low  water  at  the  bulkhead  line. 
Practically  all  of  the  sewers  emptying  into  the  Hudson  river  must  cross  railroad 
property.  The  Carteret  avenue  outlet  will  be  built  out  to  the  pierhead  when  the  rail- 
road fills  in  the  land  out  to  the  established  pierhead  line. 

The  outlets  of  the  Jersey  City  sewers  are  located  as  given  in  Table  XXVIII. 


TABLE     XXVIII 

OUTLETS  OF  SEWERS  OF  JEUSEY  CITY 


Location 

Equivalent 
Diameter 

Size 

Remarks 

15th  street,  Hudson  river  

4'  6" 

Riveted  Steel 

14th  street,  Hudson  river 

3'  5" 

3'  0"x4'  0"  Egg 

13th  street,  Hudson  river 

5'  0" 

r/  (i"x  f-!  fl"    Firrr 

12th  street,  Hudson  river  

8'  0" 

Riveted  Steel 

Pavonia,  Hudson  river.  .  . 

3'  6" 

3'  0"x4'  0"  Egg 

8th  street,  Hudson  river  .  . 

3'  6" 

3'  0"x4'  0"  Fgg 

6th  street,  Hudson  river  

3'  3" 

3'  0"x3'  6"  Egg 

2d  street,  Hudson  river  

4'  0" 

350 


DATA   COLLECTED 
TABLE    XXVIII— Continued 


Location 

Equivalent 
Diameter 

Size 

Remarks 

3'  5" 

3'  0"x4'  0"  Effz 

Pearl  street,  Hudson  river  

3'  5" 

3'  0"x4'  0"  Egg 

York  street,  Hudson  river 

4'  6" 

4'  0"xo'  0"  Egg 

Grand  street,  Hudson  river  

7'  0" 

Essex  street,  Hudson  river 

3'  0" 

Grand  street,  Mill  creek 

4'  0" 

Grand  street,  Mill  creek     

6'  0" 

Riveted  Steel 

Pine  street,  Mill  creek  

4'  6" 

Communipaw  

Pine  street,  New  York  bay      ....        ... 

2'  6" 

Carteret  street,  New  York  bay  

two  —  8'  9" 

Richard  street,  New  York  bay  

4'  0" 

Brown  place,  New  York  bay  

5'  0" 

Neptune  avenue,  Newark  bay  

6'  0" 

Steel  pipe 

Danfort  avenue,  Newark  bay  

4'  0" 

Swampy  creek,  Newark  bay  

6'  0" 

South  Newark  &  N.  Y.  R.  R.,  Hackensack\ 

6'  0" 

Not  built;  held  up  by  State  Board  of  Heajth. 

Hatch  avenue,  Hackensack  river  

4'  0" 

Clendenin  avenue,  Hackensack  river  

5'  0" 

Steel  pipe. 

Communipaw  avenue,  Hackensack  river.  .  . 

5'  0" 

Duncan  avenue,  Hackensack  river  

3'  6" 

Sip  avenue,  Hackensack  river  

4'  6" 

Newark  avenue,  Hackensack  river 

4'  6" 

Newark  avenue,  Hackensack  river  

2'  6" 

Van  Winkle  avenue,  Hackensack  river 

7'  C" 

Steel  pipe. 

St  Pauls  avenue,  Hackensack  river 

2'  6" 

Manhattan  avenue,  Hackensack  river  

5'  0" 

North  Bergen  —  Jersey  City  Joint,  Penhorn\ 

4'  6" 

Size  of  inlet  into  joint  sewer  at  Ton  nr  lie  street 

creek                                                        / 

Grades.  The  grades  in  the  lower  part  of  city  are  so  flat  that  the  sewage  backs  up 
some  times  as  much  as  one  and  one-half  miles.  It  is  said  that  sediment  does  not  de- 
posit in  these  sewers  to  any  extent  because  of  the  high  velocities.  The  hydraulic  grade 
and  the  grade  of  the  invert  in  these  sewers  may  not  coincide. 


SEWERAGE  OF  JERSEY  CITY  351 

Difficulties.  The  Morris  canal  skirts  the  shores  of  Newark  bay  and  New  York  bay 
thereby  requiring  great  expense  for  inverted  siphons  for  all  of  the  outlets  in  this  terri- 
tory. 

The  canal  is  in  a  very  unsanitary  condition.  An  inspection  was  made  of  it  by  the 
Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission's  inspectors  from  Henderson  street  to  Mill  creek 
on  November  16th,  1909,  and  numerous  dead  animals,  dead  fish  and  quantities  of 
garbage  and  ashes  were  observed.  Bubbles  were  noticed  rising  to  the  surface  in  pro- 
fusion, and  green  algae  and  slime  covered  the  various  objects  on  the  bottom.  Many  out- 
houses overhang  the  canal  and  a  small  amount  of  sewage  flow  was  noted  near  Hender- 
son street.  The  canal  is  said  to  be  leased  to  a  railroad  company  and  used  only  enough 
to  hold  the  franchise  or  charter.  If  the  canal  were  done  away  with  it  would  clean  up 
one  of  the  worst  appearing  of  Jersey  City's  unsanitary  surroundings,  and  would  aid 
the  sewerage  system  very  materially  by  eliminating  the  necessity  of  inverted  siphons. 

RELIEF  SEWERS 

During  the  last  few  years  a  number  of  so-called  relief  sewers,  designed  to  relieve  the 
older  sewers  in  districts  in  which  the  old  system  has  become  inadequate,  have  been  con- 
structed. The  following  are  some  of  these: 

Division  Street.  The  Division  street  relief  sewer  is  an  8-foot  riveted  steel  construc- 
tion extending  in  Twelfth  street  from  Division  street  to  the  Hudson  river  across  the 
lauds  of  the  Erie  Railroad  Company.  The  cost  was  about  $207,500,  for  no  portion  of 
which  was  an  assessment  levied.  The  elevation  of  the  invert  is  5.9  feet  below  ordin- 
ary high  tide  so  that  at  practically  all  times  the  top  of  this  sewer  will  be  exposed.  The 
sewer  serves  a  large  low  level  district  and  there  was  at  first  connected  to  it  a  sewer 
draining  the  hill  section  through  the  New  York  avenue  sewer.  This  was  found  to  over- 
tax the  Division  street  sewer  at  times  of  flood  and  a  54-inch  steel  line  was  built  across 
lands  of  the  Lackawanna  Railroad  Company,  through  Monmouth  and  Thirteenth  streets 
to  the  Hudson  river.  This  line  runs  under  pressure  and  receives  no  sewage  from  the 
lower  levels. 

Jackson  and  Claremont  Avenue  Relief.  The  Bergen  section,  although  it  is  situated 
on  the  hill,  was  subjected  to  flooding  of  streets  and  cellars  and  the  Jackson  and 
Claremont  avenue  relief  sewer  is  being  built  to  relieve  it.  This  system  outlets  through 
an  extension  of  Carteret  avenuet  with  expensive  crossings  under  the  Morris  canal  and 
a  great  number  of  railroad  tracks.  From  the  foot  of  the  hill  there  is  an  8-foot  steel 
pipe  under  the  tracks;  a  second  8-foot  concrete  steel  conduit  has  been  placed  alongside 
of  the  riveted  steel  pipe  to  take  care  of  low  level  districts  tributary  north  to  Communi- 
paw  avenue  when  it  shall  have  become  built  up. 


352 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Grant  Avenue  Relief.  A  6-foot  riveted  steel  relief  sewer  for  the  district  011  the  hill 
north  of  Communipaw  avenue  has  been  built  starting  at  Summit  street  and  running 
down  Fairmouut  and  Grand  streets  to  Mill  creek. 

Van  Winkle  Avenue.  A  7-foot  steel  outlet  sewer  emptying  into  the  Hackensack 
river  at  the  foot  of  Van  Winkle  avenue  was  built  to  relieve  the  high  level  flow  of  the 
Newark  avenue  sewer. 

OTHER  RECENT  CONSTRUCTIONS 

Clendenin  Avenue.  A  60-inch  riveted  steel  sewer  empties  into  the  mouth  of  the 
Hackensack  river  at  the  foot  of  Clendenin  avenue.  This  drains  the  west  side  of  the  hill 
district  between  Communipaw  and  Virginia  avenues. 

Jersey  City-Bergen  Joint  Hewer.  A  54-inch  brick  sewer  emptying  into  the  joint 
sewer  at  Tonnelle  street  has  just  been  completed.  The  joint  sewer  will  need  to  be  re- 
constructed within  a  comparatively  short  time  and  the  expense  thereof  borne  by  both 
cities. 

Extent  of  the  System.  Table  XXIX  gives  some  statistical  data  relating  to  the 
extent  of  the  sewerage  system  and  other  matters  of  general  interest: 

TABLE  XXIX 

DATA  RELATING  TO  THE  SEWERAGE  OF  JERSEY  CITY 


Year 

Miles  of  Sewers  built 

During  intervening  years 

Total 

1900                                                               

99.5 

1901 

1902                                               .         

1903                                                        .     .         

14.52 

1904                                        

1905                                                       

114.02 

190(j                                                                   

1907                                           

6.27 
2.60 

120.29 
122.89 

1908                                                        

Number  of  basins  in  1900 1,300 

Number  of  house  connections  in  1905 27,000 

Number  of  factory  connections  in   1905 809 

Population  in  1900 210,000 

Population  in  1905 230,000 

Number  of  outlets  in  1905 23 

Number  of  outlets  in  1909 30 

Annual  expense  for  care,  1905 f 20,000 


SEWERAGE  OF  JEESEY  CITY  353 

Annual  expense  for  care,  1907 $27,000 

Annual  expense  for  care,  1908 $26,000 

Area  drained,  1905,  square  inili-s 10 

Estimated  dry  weather  flow,  1905,  cubic  feet  per  second 50 

Estimated  stormy  weather  How,  1905,  cubic  feet  per  second 5,000 

Area  of  city,  upland,  square  miles 13.2 

Area  of  city,  under  water,  square  miles 6.0 

Area  of  city,  total,  square  miles 19.2 

Paved  streets,  1900,  miles 100 

Paved  streets,  1907,  miles 121.6 

Paved  streets,  1908,  miles 124.9 

Unpaved  streets,  1900,  miles 101 . 0 

Unpaved  streets,  1907,  miles 80 . 9 

Unpaved  streets,  1908,  miles 77 . 8 

MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  SEWERAGE  WORKS 

Inspection.  All  inspections  of  sewers  and  basins  are  made  by  a  foreman  and  two 
assistants,  there  being  no  regular  inspectors  for  the  work. 

Cleaning.  The  down  town  basins  are  cleaned  about  every  two  weeks  and  up  town 
about  every  two  months.  No  machines  are  used  in  the  work.  The  cleaning  of  large 
sewers  in  down  town  districts  must  generally  be  done  at  low  water. 

The  street  cleaning  force  does  not  make  a  practice  of  pushing  sweepings  into  the 
catch  basin ;  nevertheless  much  garbage  finds  its  way  into  them.  Officers  are  instructed 
to  arrest  persons  found  putting  anything  of  this  sort  into  the  basins.  The  streets  are 
said  to  be  kept  quite  clean. 

Disposal  of  Cleanings.  The  cleanings  from  basins  and  sewers  are  hauled  out  of 
town  to  the  meadows  and  used  as  filling  on  private  holdings.  No  nuisance  is  caused  as 
there  are  no  houses  near  the  dumping  grounds. 

Ventilation.    Ventilation  is  accomplished  through  perforated  manhole  covers. 

DISPOSAL  OP   THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal  Discharge.  Of  the  34  sewer  outfalls  in  Jersey  City  13  discharge  into  the 
Hudson  river,  3  into  Mill  creek,  4  into  New  York  bay,  3  into  Newark  bay,  10  into 
the  Hackensack  river  and  1  into  Penhorn  creek.  All  empty  into  the  water  without 
screening  or  purification  of  any  kind;  nuisances  are  common.  The  following  are  the 
general  conditions  attending  the  discharge  at  different  localities: 

Hackensack  River.  There  is  said  to  be  no  nuisance  caused  by  sewers  emptying 
into  the  Hackensack  river  at  Jersey  City  because  of  the  swift  current  and  deep  water. 

Penhorn  Creek.  Penhoru  creek  is  badly  polluted  by  the  Jersey  City-North  Bergen 
joint  sewer.  Notice  from  the  State  Sewerage  Commission  to  Jersey  City  and  West 


354  DATA   COLLECTED 

Hoboken  to  cease  polluting  Penhorn  creek  prior  to  May  1,  190S,  was  disregarded.  The 
Attorney  General  was  requested  to  bring  proceedings  against  these  two  municipalities 
to  enforce  the  notice. 

Newark  Hay.  Bayonne  complains  that  the  sewers  emptying  into  Newark  bay  from 
Jersey  City  pollute  her  shores. 

Hudson  River.  The  sewage  emptying  into  the  Hudson  river  at  the  bulkhead  line 
between  the  various  piers  of  the  railroad  companies  may  easily  be  noted.  It  has  not 
the  chance  to  be  diluted,  digested  and  carried  away  that  it  would  have  were  it  delivered 
to  the  ends  of  the  piers. 

Mill  Creek.  An  inspection  was  made  of  this  creek  from  the  Morris  canal  to  Grand 
street  on  November  16,  1909.  The  creek  is  an  open  sewer.  The  odor  was  quite 
noticeable. 

A  6-foot  riveted  steel  pipe  and  two  4-foot  cast-iron  outlets  were  each  running 
about  half  full  of  sewage  of  a  comparatively  fresh  character.  The  current  in  the  creek 
is  fairly  rapid  and  the  channel  well  defined,  so  that  the  sewage  is  carried  away  rapidly. 

Mill  creek  also  receives  sewage  from  a  4-foot  6-inch  sewer  emptying  at  the  foot  of 
Pine  street. 

Future  Plans.  No  future  plans  for  the  disposal  of  the  Jersey  City  sewage  have 
been  formulated,  or  even  talked  of,  except  in  a  general  way;  it  is  conceded,  however, 
that  a  system  different  from  the  present  one  of  draining  into  the  nearest  available 
water  must  be  devised  at  no  distant  date. 

Mr.  Emil  Kuichling,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  has,  at  various  times,  passed  on  plans  and 
advised  in  a  general  way  on  the  design  and  construction  features  of  various  projects 
as  they  have  been  developed. 

Greenville.  A  district  of  about  150  acres  in  the  Greenville  section  is  now  needing 
sewers.  A  system  has  been  designed  with  an  outlet  into  Newark  bay,  just  south  of 
the  Newark  and  New  York  railroad,  but  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  refused  to 
allow  it  to  be  built,  or  in  fact  any  other  to  discharge  into  Newark  bay,  without  first 
removing  "  the  solid  material "  therefrom.  The  Board  of  Street  and  Water  Com- 
missioners is  now  considering  what  to  do  to  comply  with  these  regulations.  No  de- 
signs for  a  purification  plant  are  being  studied. 

Grand  Avenue.  It  is  proposed  to  build  an  extension  of  the  Grand  avenue  sewer 
up  Grand  avenue  from  Pairmount  avenue  to  Park  avenue  to  relieve  the  tributary  dis- 
trict; there  is  also  a  plan  to  build  an  extension  of  the  outlet  in  the  bed  of  Mill  creek  to 
the  basin  and  fill  up  Mill  creek  its  entire  length. 


SEWERAGE    OF    HOBOKEN  355 

SEWERAGE  OF  HOBOKEN,   N.   J. 

GENERAL   FEATURES   AND   CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Features.  Hoboken  city,  with  a  population  in  1905  of 
65,468  has  an  area  of  about  720  acres  served  with  sewers,  and  lies  just  north  of  Jersey 
City;  various  railroad  lines  bound  it  on  the  south,  east  and  north,  and  the  Hudson 
river  on  the  west. 

The  main  topographical  feature  of  Hoboken  is  Stevens  Point  rising  to  a  height  of 
100  feet  quite  near  to  the  Hudson  river  and  sloping  landward  in  all  directions.  The 
northeastern  portion  of  the  city  is  still  unfilled  swamp.  Practically  all  of  the  sewers 
are  built  on  piles.  No  rock  is  encountered  in  making  excavations. 

Naturally,  since  the  surface  drains  away  from  Stevens  Point  in  all  directions,  but 
tAvo  general  drainage  districts  are  possible.  The  first  drains  practically  all  the  streets 
from  about  Ninth  street  to  the  south  into  interceptors  running  down  Third,  Newark  and 
Ferry  streets  to  the  river.  The  second  general  system  drains  a  smaller  area  to  the  north 
of  Eighth  and  Ninth  streets  in  a  similar  way  through  Eleventh  and  Fourteenth  streets 
to  the  river. 

SEWERAGE   WORKS 

Desiyn  of  Sewers.  The  design  and  construction  of  new  sewers  is  done  by  a  civil 
engineer  designated  by  the  Board  of  Aldermen,  for  the  particular  work  in  question. 

Very  little  information  is  obtainable  regarding  the  design  and  construction  of  the 
Hoboken  sewers.  There  has  been  no  work  of  magnitude  carried  on  in  recent  years. 

Old  tiystvm.  All  the  sewers  in  Hobokeu  are  on  the  combined  system.  An  official 
map  is  on  record  in  the  City  Clerk's  office  showing  the  sewers.  On  this  map  three  wooden 
box  sewers,  said  to  be  8  feet  square,  are  shown  emptying  into  the  canal  in  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna  &  Western  R.  R.  yards.  A  4-foot  wooden  box  sewer  is  shown  emptying 
into  a  small  basin  near  the  foot  of  Fifteenth  street.  The  outlet  of  the  sewer  and  also 
that  of  the  basin  are  shown  with  automatic  gates.  One  of  these  old  box  drains,  which 
has  been  replaced  within  the  last  few  years,  was  found  in  an  excellent  state  of  preser- 
vation as  it  had  been  completely  submerged  at  all  times.  The  remaining  sewer  outlets 
shown  on  the  official  map  are  of  brick  construction. 

Outfalls.     The  sewer  outfalls  are  given  in  Table  XXX. 


356 


DATA   COLLECTED 
TABLE  XXX 

OUTFALLS  OF  HOBOKEN,  N.  J.,  SEWERS 


Description 

Size 

Elevation 
Outlet—  Invert 
Feet 

Area 
Drained; 
Acres 

Remarks 

8'x8' 

—  15  0 

Park  avenue  

8'x8' 

—  5  8 

Bloonafield  street                            •                    ... 

8'x8' 

—  7  67 

Ferry  street  

4'x8' 

110 

Newark  street  

2'6"x4'0"  Egg 

—  8  9 

Brick 

Newark  street  

5'0" 

45 

3rd  street  '  

5'0"  diam. 

—6.1 

225 

Brick 

llth  street  

4'0"x2'6"  oval 

—  1.5 

125 

Brick 

14th  street  

^"xS'e"  Egg. 

—3.3 

50 

Brick 

15th  street  

4'0"x4'0"  square 

NoUt. 

Elevations  refer  to  mean  high  water. 

The  Provost  street.  Park  avenue  and  Bloomfield  street  outlets  discharge  into  a  long  ship  canal  extending  inland  from  the 
Hudson  river.    All  the  other  sewers  discharge  into  the  Hudson  river  either  in  ferry  or  steamer  slips  or  at  the  bulkhead  line. 

Extent  of  the  System.  In  1905  there  were  about  15  miles  of  sewers  in  Hoboken, 
with  4,300  house  connections.  There  were  1,300  catch  basins  connected  with  the  sys- 
tem in  1900.  The  total  area  drained  by  the  sewers  is  1.1  square  miles. 


MAINTENANCE   OF  THE  SEWEEAGE   WOEKS 

The  Street  Commissioner  has  charge  of  the  maintenance  of  the  sewers,  fur  which 
purpose  he  has  two  gangs  consisting  of  three  men  and  a  cart  each. 

Inspection.     No  regular  inspections  are  made  of  basins  and  sewers. 

Cleaning.  It  is  said  that  the  basins  are  cleaned  three  or  four  times  per  year,  and 
the  sewers  when  they  fail  to  work.  Rods  are  pushed  through  from  manhole  to  man- 
hole and  then  a  rope  with  buckets  attached  to  it  is  drawn  through  by  means  of  a  wind- 
lass. This  method  can  be  used  when  the  sewer  is  full  of  water. 

Disposal  of  Cleanings.  The  basin  and  sewer  cleanings  are  taken  to  the  meadows 
and  used  as  filling.  The  dumping  places  are  too  far  from  houses  to  give  rise  to  com- 
plaints. 

DISPOSAL  OF   THE  SEWAGE 

Tidal  Discharges.  All  the  sewers  discharge  into  tide  water  of  the  Hudson  river 
without  treatment  or  purification. 


SEWERAGE  OF  HOBOKEX  357 

Tide-locked  Sewers.  The  inverts  of  the  outlets,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  the 
Eleventh  and  Fourteenth  street  sewers,  are  all  tide-locked  at  high  water. 

The  following  extract  from  the  1905  State  Sewerage  Commission  Report,  page 
182,  describes  this  condition. 

"  The  sewerage  system  for  the  lower  meadow  section  is  based  on  the  tidal  sys- 
tem. The  outlets  are  provided  with  sluice  gates,  which  are  raised  and  lowered  at  the 
change  of  the  tides  by  a  service  gate  keeper.  A  few  of  the  sewers  coming  from  the 
higher  section  do  not  require  sluice  gates;  a  system  of  drainage  by  pumping  has  been 
under  consideration  for  some  time,  but  no  definite  action  has  been  taken  towards  its 
establishment." 

Nuisances.  Complaints  have  been  made  to  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  New  Jersey 
of  a  nuisance  caused  by  the  Newark  street  sewer  outletting  into  a  basin  formed  by  the 
piers  of  the  Hamburg-American  Steamship  Company  and  the  Lackawanna  Railroad.  An 
inspection  made  by  Board  of  Health  found  "  that  the  sewage  had  a  tendency  to  re- 
main near  the  end  of  the  pipe  until  putrefied  and  became  a  nuisance  to  the  neighbor- 
hood." At  an  inspection  by  an  inspector  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission 
on  November  19th,  1909,  practically  the  same  conditions  were  observed.  Bubbles  of 
gas  were  noted  rising  to  the  surface,  through  the  grayish  colored  water  which  gave  off 
a  distinctly  sewage  odor.  The  Hamburg-American  Steamship  Company  has  lodged 
complaint  with  the  city  Board  of  Health  and  the  Mayor  of  Hoboken  but  no  action 
has  been  taken.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  city's  sewers  discharge  into  the  Hudson 
over  private  property  "  It  was  stated  that  there  is  a  legal  question  involved  as  to 
who  shall  remedy  conditions  existing  at  present." 

Future  Plans.  There  have  been  a  number  of  plans  and  studies  made  of  the  sew- 
erage problem  in  Hoboken  by  Mr.  T.  H.  McCann,  as  well  as  other  consulting  engi- 
neers, but  no  definite  action  has  been  taken  with  respect  to  further  improvements 
in  sewerage.  An  installation  of  pumps  to  drain  the  tide-locked  sewers  and  do  away 
with  the  intermittent  discharge  has  been  proposed. 

SEWERAGE  OF  THE  RAHWAY  RIVER  VALLEY 

GENERAL  FEATURES  AND  CONDITIONS 

Principal  Topographical  Characteristics.  The  watershed  of  the  Rahway  river  and 
its  tributaries  lies  to  the  east  and  southeast  of  the  Elizabeth  and  Morse  creek  water- 
sheds, and  to  the  south  of  the  Passaic  watershed. 

It,  covers  an  area  of  250  square  miles  and  drains  a  large  tract  of  swampy 
land  to  the  east  of  Rahway  characterized  by  numerous  small  lakes.  The  land  drained 


358 


DATA   COLLECTED 


up  to  about  12  miles  from  its  mouth  is  comparatively  flat.     At  this  point  it  branches 
either  side  of  First  Watchung  Mountain  whose  slopes  are  very  steep. 

Municipalities  on  the  Watershed.  A  list  of  the  various  municipalities,  with  a 
total  population  in  1905  of  over  45.000  people  living  on  this  watershed,  is  given  in 
Table  XXXI. 

TABLE  XXXI 
MUNICIPALITIES  IN   KAH\VAY   RIVER   WATERSHED 


City 

1905 
Population 

Remarks 

8  649 

538 

Clark          

387 

Fanwood  Township  

1  341 

Cranford  Township  

3,600 

Must  cease  polluting  by  November  1,  1911 

564 

West  field               

5265 

Springfield  Township  

1,123 

Millburn  Township  

3,182 

Drain  into  Joint  outlet 

6,845 

West  Orange  

7,872 

Drain  into  Joint  outlet 

South  Orange  

4,932 

Drain  into  Joint  outlet 

South  Orange  Township  

1,946 

Drain  into  Joint  outlet 

46,244 
24,777 

Total 
Drain  into  Joint  outlet 

21,467 

Drain  into  Rahway 

SEWERAGE  WORKS  OF  THE   MUNICIPALITIES 

Rahway.  Rahway,  with  an  estimated  population  in  1905  of  8,649,  is  the  largest 
city  on  the  watershed.  Its  sewage  is  discharged  into  the  Cranford-Rahway  trunk 
sewer,  which  in  turn  discharges  into  the  Rahway  river  below  the  city  of  Rahway. 
This  sewer  is  the  only  one  noted  as  polluting  the  Rahway  river  below  the  water  works 
intake,  but  the  stream  is  small  and  consequently  is  badly  polluted. 

In  1906  Rahway  complained  to  the  State  Sewerage  Commission  that  the  trunk 
sewer  from  Cranford  was  overflowing  in  the  streets  of  Rahway.  Cranford  replied  that 
by  agreement  Rahway  was  to  care  for  that  portion  of  the  sewer  lying  in  Rahway,  and 


SEWERAGE  OF  THE  RAHWAY  VALLEY  359 

the  outlet,  aiid  that  therefore  Cranford  was  not  responsible.  It  would  sseeiu  from  this 
that  the  sewer  was  not  of  sufficient  size  at  this  time  or  else  the  capacity  has  become 
reduced  from  sediment. 

Rahway  was  notified  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  cease  polluting  the  river 
by  November  1,  1911. 

/{.alt-way  Itcformatury.  in  1901  plans  for  a  50,000  gallon  disposal  plant  were 
drawn  and  the  work  partly  constructed.  They  have  never  been  completed  and  dur- 
ing all  this  time  raw  sewage  has  been  discharged  down  Woodbridge  road  through  a 
10-inch  pipe  into  the  river.  In  1908  Waring,  Chapman  and  Farquahar  drew  plans  for 
this  plant  and  included  an  electric  pump,  screen  chamber  and  sand  filter  beds.  The 
first  design  was  not  acceptable  to  the  State  Sewerage  Commission  and  after  revision 
the  bids  submitted  for  its  construction  were  higher  than  the  appropriation.  The 
Commission  then  requested  Prof.  E.  B.  Phelps  to  devise  a  plan  and  he  recommended 
chemical  disinfection  and  septic  action.  Owing  to  the  danger  of  the  pollution  of 
shellfish  this  method  of  treatment  was  considered  the  only  one  available.  A  10-inch 
pipe  was  considered  ample  for  house  sewage  for  a  great  many  years  to  come  and  an 
18-iiicli  pipe  recommended  to  care  for  storm  water.  The  adoption  of  separate  systems 
was  urged  by  Prof.  Phelps. 

Cranford.  Cranford  township  has  a  population  of  about  3,600  and,  as  above 
stated,  it  sewers  into  the  trunk  emptying  below  Rahway.  It  has  about  ten  miles  of 
sewers  on  the  separate  system.  In  1902  and  1905  a  citizen  of  Cranford  complained 
of  various  factories  on  the  river  above.  Inspections  were  made  and  notices  to  cease 
pollution  were  served  by  the  State  Sewerage  Commission,  but  it  was  not  considered 
possible  to  make  the  water  potable.  In  1900  there  was  reported  a  water  consump- 
tion of  but  six  gallons  per  capita  per  day  and  with  a  population  of  2,800  there  was 
estimated  a  daily  sewage  discharge  of  but  20,000  gallons.  Ten  per  cent,  of  the  sewage 
was  estimated  to  be  ground  water. 

Garwood.  A  plan  to  extend  the  Cranford  system  out  through  Garwood  has  been 
made  and  was  in  the  process  of  construction  in  1908.  A  private  sewer  6,000  feet  long 
draining  the  overflow  of  cesspools  is  to  be  connected  up  with  the  new  system. 

Westfield.  Westfield's  system  was  built  in  1895.  At  that  time  12  miles  of  sewers 
were  laid,  but  the  system  has  since  been  extended  to  about  15  miles.  The  present  sys- 
tem had  974  connections  in  1908  and  cared  for  about  6,000  people.  The  volume  of 
sewage  was  estimated  at  400,000  gallons  daily.  The  sewers  leak  badly  and  in  rainy 
weather  the  quantity  may  be  doubled  on  this  account. 

There  is  a  sewage  disposal  farm  of  108  acres  about  two  miles  from  town.  Twelve 
acres  are  available  for  the  disposal  plant,  which  consists  of  a  double  screen  chamber. 


360  DATA    COLLECTED 

three  sludge  beds,  a  spetic  tank,  five  intermittent  filter  beds  and  four  irrigation 
tracts.  The  effluent  runs  into  a  small  stream  which  is  caught  by  a  large  irou  main 
and  conducted  about"  two  miles  and  emptied  below  the  intake  of  the  Kahway  water- 
works. 

Millburn  Toionship.  Millburn  Township  had  15  miles  of  sewers  in  1905,  with 
about  four  miles  planned.  It  is  connected  with  the  Joint  outlet  sewer  emptying  into 
Staten  Island  Sound.  The  territory  of  2,800  acres  drained  had  in  1905  a  population 
of  3,500  living  in  350  houses.  There  Avere  three  paper  mills  using  6,000,000  gallons 
of  water  daily.  The  separate  system  is  cleaned  by  automatic  flush  tanks.  It  costs 
$500  per  year  to  care  for  the  system.  This  township,  it  is  to  be  noted,  does  not  pol- 
lute the  Rahway  river. 

Summit.  Summit  lies  on  the  ridge  between  the  Rahway  and  Passaic  rivers.  It 
had  an  estimated  population  in  1908  of  8,000.  It  produces  about  500,000  gallons 
of  sewage  daily,  all  emptying  into  the  Joint  outlet  sewer.  The  whole  town  is  sew- 
ered. About  half  of  the  sewage  runs  by  gravity  and  the  remainder  must  be  pumped 
over  the  ridge.  There  is  an  abandoned  sewage  disposal  plant  for  the  portion  now 
pumped.  The  sewage  of  Summit  is  taken  out  of  its  natural  watershed  into  that  of 
the  Elizabeth  river. 

Orange.  In  1900  about  500,000  gallons  of  sewage  daily  produced  in  the  city  of 
Orange  from  230  acres  in  the  Rahway  valley  was  pumped  over  into  the  Passaic  valley. 
There  still  exists  an  old  sewer  discharging  into  the  Rahway,  used  for  storm  overflow, 
into  which  house  connections  were  made;  complaints  have  been  made  of  this  by 
South  Orange.  The  State  Sewerage  Commission  found  in  1906  it  had  no  jurisdiction  over 
cities  within  the  district  of  the  Passaic  Valley  Commission.  In  1907  the  overflows  from 
the  regular  sewers  of  Orange  to  the  storm  water  outlet  into  the  Rahway  were  discon- 
nected and  the  private  connections  into  the  storm  water  drain  also  cut  off.  Factory 
wastes  still  discharge  into  the  sewer  to  some  extent.  A  number  of  private  sewers 
from  hat  factories  and  others  still  discharge  into  the  stream,  and  notices  were  sent 
to  some  dozen  different  parties  to  cease  polluting  the  river. 

West  Orange.  West  Orange  lies  to  the  east  of  the  First  mountain  at  the  head 
waters  of  the  east  branch  of  Rahway  river  and  the  Second  river.  Practically  all  of 
its  area,  2,325  acres  tributary  to  the  Rahway  is  sewered  into  the  Joint  outlet  sewer. 

Union  Township.  A  portion  of  the  area  of  Union  Township  lies  in  the  Rahway 
watershed,  but  there  are  no  towns  of  any  size  within  its  limits. 

South  Orange  Toumship.  Plans  for  the  township  of  South  Orange  to  dischcirge 
its  sewage  into  the  Joint  outlet  sewer  were  approved  September  12,  1907.  South 


SEWERAGE  OF  THE  EAHWAY  VALLEY  361 

Orange  Township  through  an  arrangement  with  South  Orange  village  has  a  right  to 
use  the  Joint  outlet.  It  has  a  territory  of  about  3,754  acres. 

South  Orange.  South  Orange  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  river  just  to  the 
east  of  First  mountain.  It  has  an  area  of  1,575  acres  and  a  population  of  about  5, 
000.  Its  sewers  drain  into  the  Joint  outlet. 

Factories.  A  large  n umber  of  various  kinds  of  factories  pollute  the  Rahway 
river;  these  have  been  served  many  times  with  notices  to  cease  the  pollution  and 
promises  to  stop  were  freely  given  each  time,  but  little  was  done.  It  is  probable  that 
the  injury  to  fish  and  shellfish  is  due  to  the  factory  pollution  to  a  much  larger  ex- 
tent than  the  house  sewage  proper. 


CHAPTER   VI 

FOULING  OF  THE  BEACHES  OF  LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY 

BY  GARBAGE    WASHED    UP    FROM    THE    SEA 

DURING  THE  SUMMER  OF  1906. 

SECTION  I 
RESULTS  OF  INSPECTIONS 

COLLECTION  OF  INFORMATION 

Purpose  of  Investigation.  Following  is  Hie  substance  of  a  report  sent  to  Mayor  Mc- 
Clellaii  in  answer  to  a  request  from  Acting  Mayor  McGowan  in  July,  1906,  that  the 
fouling  of  the  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey  shores  with  garbage  be  investigated.  The 
presence  of  so  much  garbage  was  exceptional.  It  was  found  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
garbage  of  the  City  of  New  York  was  being  dumped  at  sea  in  order  to  dispose  of  it 
until  the  Barren  Island  disposal  works,  which  had  recently  been  destroyed  by  fire,  could 
be  rebuilt. 

The  information  contained  herein  relates  to  the  circumstances  under  which 
garbage  was  found  on  the  beaches  with  respect  to  the  places  where  it  was  washed  up, 
the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind,  stage  of  the  tide,  quantity  of  garbage,  the  compo- 
sition and  condition  of  the  garbage  with  reference  to  decomposition,  the  measures  which 
it  was  necessary  to  take  to  remove  the  garbage  from  the  beaches,  the  location  of  the 
places  at  sea  where  the  garbage  was  dumped,  the  quantities  of  garbage  dumped  each 
day,  and  the  rate  at  which  the  garbage  was  driven  by  the  wind  through  the  sea. 

Usefulness  of  Data.  These  data  are  of  interest  not  only  because  sea  dumping  may 
at  some  time  again  be  necessary,  but  because  the  behavior  of  this  garbage  gives  an  idea 
of  the  course  which  sewage  might  take  if  emptied  under  similar  conditions  at  the 
mouth  of  the  harbor. 

Organization  of  Inspection.  The  inspection  of  the  shores  of  Long  Island  and  New 
Jersey  began  July  10,  1906,  and  were  continued  until  the  15th  of  August  of  the  same 
year.  A  large  part  of  the  work  was  done  by  a  Chief  Inspector  of  the  Metropolitan  Sew- 
erage Commission  assisted  by  six  or  eight  volunteer  inspectors  at  carefully  selected 
points  on  the  two  lines  of  coast.  Most  of  these  volunteer  inspectors  were  bathing  mast- 
ers or  life  guards,  whose  occupations  kept  them  on  the  beaches  continually. 
At  the  beginning  all  were  shown  how  to  keep  systematic  records  of  their  ob- 
servations. In  this  way  it  was  found  feasible  to  watch  the  Long  Island  shore  as  far 
east  as  Westhampton,  about  80  miles  from  New  York,  and  the  New  Jersey  coast  as 


364  DATA   COLLECTED 

far  south  as  Atlantic  City,  about  90  miles  from  New  York.  These  inspections  were 
supplemented  by  observations  made  by  members  of  the  United  States  Life  Saving  Ser- 
vice. 

In  order  to  observe  the  behavior  of  the  garbage  in  the  sea  and  to  make  observations 
concerning  the  speed  at  which  it  was  carried  by  currents  two  days  were  spent  by 
one  of  the  members  of  the  Metropolitan  Commission  on  the  ocean,  the  distance  cov- 
ered in  these  two  days  having  been  about  160  nautical  miles. 

Records  of  the  force  and  direction  of  the  principal  prevailing  winds  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  investigations  were  supplied  by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau. 
The  Department  of  Street  Cleaning  of  the  City  of  New  York  furnished  records 
of  the  amount  of  garbage,  in  loads  and  tons,  dumped  at  sea  each  day,  and  indicated  the 
points  where  it  directed  that  the  dumping  be  done.  The  Supervisor  of  the  Harbor  ex- 
plained the  system  by  which  lie  sought  to  prevent  the  dumping  of  garbage  inside  the 

three-mile  limit. 

SUMMARY  OF  INFORMATION  COLLECTED 

The  information  collected  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

Dumping  Grounds  and  the  Effect  of  Changing  their  Location.  At  first  the  dumping 
grounds  were  at  a  point  about  17  miles  from  Seabright,  N.  J.,  and  18  miles  from 
Long  Beach,  L.  I. ;  their  removal  to  a  point  about  25  miles  from  Seabright  and  about 
17  miles  from  Long  Branch  on  August  17  lessened,  but  did  not  remove,  the  risk  of  foul- 
ing the  New  Jersey  beaches. 

Effects  of  Winds  on  Travel  of  Garbage.  During  the  periods  when  garbage  was 
dumped  at  sea  the  New  Jersey  and  Long  Island  beaches  were  befouled  whenever  a 
brisk  wind  blew  shoreward  from  the  ocean.  When  calms  or  light  winds  occurred  the 
garbage  accumulated  until  a  favorable  wind  occurred  to  carry  it  to  shore. 

Fields  of  Floating  Garbage.  Inspections  of  the  sea  in  all  directions  to  a  distance 
of  about  35  miles  from  the  Narrows  showed  in  calm  weather  the  presence  of  fields  of 
many  acres  of  garbage,  even  after  dumping  had  been  entirely  suspended  for  two  days. 

Rate  of  Travel  of  Garbage  toward  Beaches.  Accurate  observations  at  sea  showed 
the  garbage  traveling  toward  shore  at  a  rate  of  over  one-half  a  mile  per  hour  when  the 
tide  was  favorable  and  the  wind  blowing  landward  at  a  rate  of  about  five  miles  per  hour. 

Return  of  Floating  Garbage  to  New  York  Harbor.  Under  the  action  of  continued 
easterly  winds  some  garbage  originally  dumped  at  sea  about  15  miles  beyond  the  en- 
trance to  the  Gedney  channel  returned  to  New  York  and  was  .thrown  upon  the 
Staten  Island  beaches  about  29  miles  away.  A  small  amount  actually  entered  the 
Narrows  and  was  driven  into  Upper  New  York  bay. 

Distances  Traveled  by  Garbage.  Garbage  was  at  times  found  on  the  Long  Island 
beaches  as  far  east  as  Smiths  Point,  near  Center  Moriches,  50  miles  from  the  dumping 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          365 

grounds;  on  the  New  Jersey  shore  as  far  south  as  Atlantic  City,  76  miles  from  the 
dumping  ground;  and  on  the  Staten  Island  shore,  about  25  miles  from  the  dumping 
ground.  All  the  seaside  resorts  between  these  points  and  New  York  were  inconven- 
ienced to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent  by  the  dumping  of  New  York  City  garbage  at  sea. 
Pollution  of  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey  Beaches  with  Garbage.  Most  of  the  gar- 
bage which  polluted  the  beaches  of  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey  was  unquestionably 
garbage  from  the  City  of  New  York  which  was  dumped  at  sea.  Steamers  and  other 
vessels  were  capable  of  furnishing  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  total  amount  of  gar- 
bage which  polluted  the  ocean  shore. 

Quantity  of  Garbage  on  Beaches.  The  quantity  of  garbage  deposited  on  the  beaches 
varied  from  an  amount  which  scarcely  caused  objection  to  an  amount  which  drove 
bathers  from  the  water.  There  was  found,  on  one  occasion,  on  the  New  Jersey  beach 
below  Ocean  Grove,  one  cubic  foot  of  garbage  on  each  100  square  feet  of  beach  for  a 
considerable  distance. 

Winds  of  Summer  of  1906  Favorable  to  Small  Deposits.  Meteorological  records 
showed  that  July,  1906,  was  an  unusually  favorable  month  for  the  disposal  of  garbage 
in  the  manner  followed  because  of  the  comparative  infrequency  of  landward  breezes  of 
considerable  velocity.  Had  normal  winds  prevailed  the  beaches  would  have  been  in  a 
more  objectionable  condition. 

Loss  of  Offensivcness  Due  to  Immersion.  The  garbage  which  was  washed  ashore 
after  many  hours  was  not  of  the  same  composition  nor  in  the  same  condition  as  when 
dumped  at  sea.  It  was,  for  the  most  part,  less  offensive.  Much  of  the  heavier  solid 
matters  had  sunk. 

The  vegetable  matter,  from  its  immersion,  was  deprived  of  its  most  objectionable 
qualities  and  was  offensive  chiefly  to  the  eye.  Of  that  portion  of  the  garbage  which  was 
carried  to  shore,  the  most  offensive  elements  were  dead  and  decomposing  animals,  such 
as  dogs,  cats,  rats  and  fowls. 

Grease,  which  was  washed  upon  the  beaches  in  lumps  varying  in  size  from  par- 
ticles as  large  as  peas  to  pieces  of  a  pound  or  more  in  weight,  was  particularly  objec- 
tionable to  bathers,  but  did  not  give  rise  to  offensive  odors.  Wood,  which  was  often 
washed  upon  the  beaches  in  quantity  and  was  mostly  from  other  sources,  was  carefully 
distinguished  from  garbage  in  this  investigation. 

Control  of  Future  Sea  Disposal  When  Again  Necessary.  For  the  proper  protection 
of  the  New  Jersey  and  Long  Island  beaches  in  future,  it  is  recommended  that  the 
dumping  of  garbage  from  passing  ships  be  restricted  as  far  as  practicable  especially  in 
the  months  of  June,  July  and  August. 


366  DATA   COLLECTED 

If  necessity  ever  again  requires  that  the  garbage  of  New  York  be  dumped  at  sea  it 
should  be  transported  in  sea-going  ships  and  carried  at  least  100  miles  from  the  Gedney 
channel  whistling  buoy. 

SECTION  II 

INSPECTIONS  BY  METEOPOLITAN   SEWERAGE  COMMISSION 
THE  SHORES  OF  LONG  ISLAND 

WESTHAMPTON  AND  SMITH  POINT  BEACHES 

Wcsthampton  Beach,  Long  Island.    August   3rd,    11.30    a.    m.      Wind,    southeast, 

I 

fresh.  Tide,  high,  rising.  Shore  very  clean.  Some  seaweed  and  driftwood.  A  few  corks 
and  bottles.  No  garbage  along  shore.  Local  observer  states  that  no  garbage  came 
ashore  there  July  29  or  30  and  that  he  has  seen  none  there  this  season. 

Smiths  Point  Beach  near  Center  Moriches.  August  3rd,  4.00  p.  m.  Wind  south- 
east, fresh.  Tide  low,  falling.  Small  amount  of  garbage  along  the  shore.  The  local 
observer  on  this  beach  states  that  he  had  noticed  very  little  garbage  on  this  beach  this 
season,  but  that  some  had  come  up  on  July  29  and  30.  There  had  not  been  so  much  this 
summer  as  in  former  seasons. 

Summary.  The  southwest  wind  on  July  29  and  30  washed  garbage  on  Smiths  Point 
beach  off  Center  Moriches  but  no  further  east,  so  far  as  could  be  learned  by  personal 
investigations  and  report. 

OPPOSITE  PATCHOGUB 

Water  Island  off  Patchogue,  L.  I.  August  4th,  1906, 11.00  a.  m.  Wind  southwest, 
fresh.  Tide  high.  About  the  same  quantity  of  garbage  here  as  at  Smiths  Point  beach. 
Easily  distinguished  but  hardly  enough  to  estimate.  Bathing  master  reports  no  trouble 
from  garbage  this  season.  Did  not  see  this  come  ashore,  he  said. 

Summary.  Small  quantity  of  garbage  on  beach  of  Water  Island ;  probably  there 
since  July  29  and  30  southwest  winds. 

OAK  ISLAND 

Oak  Island,  West  of  Fire  Island.  July  17, 1906, 3.00  p.  m.  Wind,  southwest,  strong. 
Tide,  three-fourths  full,  rising. 

Oak  Beach.  Shore  opposite  first  steamboat  landing  toward  Fire  Island.  Consider 
able  seaweed  and  some  driftwood  on  the  shore.  One-half  cubic  yard  seaweed  in  400 
square  feet.  No  garbage  on  shore  or  in  water.  Shore  never  cleaned  except  of  driftwood 
for  fuel.  Observer  said  he  had  seen  no  garbage  on  the  shore  this  season. 

Shore  of  Oak  Island  at  United  States  Life  Saving  Station.  Near  western  end  of 
Island.  July  17,  4.00  p.  m.  No  garbage.  Seaweed  and  driftwood  only. 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          367 

FIRE  ISLAND  AND  OAK  ISLAND 

Fire  Ixhnid  from  bathing  beach  opposite  hotel  west  to  Life  Saving  Station  and 
east  toward  Point  o'  Woods.  July  31,  11.00  a.  m.  to  3.00  p.  m.  The  wind,  light  from 
the  west.  Tide  full  at  4.00  p.  ui. ;  rising. 

Garbage  all  along  this  beach  which  came  ashore  Sunday  and  Monday  with  south- 
west wind.  The  decayed  vegetables  comprised  apples,  oranges,  lemons,  pineapples, 
onions,  turnips,  potatoes,  banana  skins,  corn,  watermelon,  squashes  and  cabbages.  Also 
many  pieces  of  fat  meat  and  grease,  pieces  of  bread,  seaweed  and  driftwood.  Also  dead 
animals.  Observer  stated  that  beach  was  cleaned  Sunday  morning  and  that  Sunday 
afternoon  and  Monday  a  large  quantity  of  garbage  came  ashore.  Estimated  quantity 
of  garbage  on  shore,  one-half  cubic  foot  on  400  square  feet  of  beach. 

Oak  Island.  A  good  deal  of  garbage  came  ashore  on  Oak  Island  on  Sunday  and 
Monday,  July  29  and  30;  also  many  crates  of  fresh  lemons. 

Summitry.  Considerable  amount  of  garbage  on  Fire  Island  and  Oak  Island  shores 
blown  there  with  southwest  winds  on  July  29  and  30. 

LONG    BEACH 

Long  Beach  Bathing  Beach.  July  12,  1906,  11.45  a.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  light. 
Tide,  high,  rising.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore  was  one-half  cubic  yard  of  vegetable 
matter,  mainly  seaweed  with  some  driftwood  and  shells.  Quantity  was  estimated 
from  one  side  of  bathing  beach  as  beach  was  cleaned.  No  garbage  on  shore  or  in  water. 
Observer  says  he  has  seen  no  garbage  on  shore  since  July  1st,  and  that  during  the  last 
week  in  June  the  beach  was  filthy  with  decayed  vegetables,  presumably  from  New  York 
dumping  scow.  None  seen  since  then,  even  after  south  winds. 

Long  Beach  Bathing  Beach.  July  30,  190G,  11.15  a.  m.  Wind,  southwest,  fresh. 
Tide,  one-half  high,  rising.  Large  amount  of  garbage,  driftwood  and  seaweed  came 
ashore  on  this  'beach  yesterday  during  strong  northeast  wind  and  considerable  is  com- 
ing ashore  to-day,  although  less  than  yesterday,  as  wind  not  so  strong.  Observer 
said  more  garbage  came  ashore  yesterday  than  at  any  time  since  June. 
Said  that  considerable  came  ashore  about  the  18th  or  19th  with  a  southwest  wind.  Be- 
sides garbage  he  buried  two  dead  cats  and  several  rats  yesterday.  Said  that  fifteen  or 
twenty  crates  of  good  lemons  were  picked  up  on  the  beach  yesterday  P.  M. 

Shore  to  West  of  Inn.  July  30,  1906,  12.25  p.  m.  Wind,  southwest,  fresh. 
Tide,  high,  rising.  All  along  shore  a  large  quantity  of  decayed  vegetables  of 
various  sorts,  pieces  of  fat  meat,  of  bread,  besides  driftwood,  seaweed,  bottles, 
tin  cans,  straw,  paper,  corks,  feathers,  etc.  Amount  of  garbage  about  l'/2  cubic  feet 


368  DATA   COLLECTED 

in  400  square  feet.    Amount  of  seaweed  and  driftwood  about  2  cubic  yards  in  400  square 
feet. 

Shore  to  Pt.  Lookout  Life  Saving  Station.  July  30,  1906,  2-4.15  p.  m.  Wind,  south- 
west, fresh.  Tide,  full  about  3.  Large  quantity  of  decayed  vegetables,  many 
pieces  of  fat  meat,  bread,  a  dead  fowl,  seaweed,  driftwood,  mattress,  bed,  tin  cans, 
straw  paper,  horse  dung,  bottles  and  brushes.  About  one  and  one-half  cubic  feet  gar- 
bage in  400  square  feet.  About  two  cubic  yards  seaweed  and  driftwood  in  400  square 
feet. 

Summary.  Large  amount  of  garbage  all  along  South  Beach  shore,  blown  ashore 
by  southwest  winds  yesterday  and  to-day. 

BOCKAWAY  BEACH  TO  CONEY  ISLAND 

Rockaway  Beach.  July  11,  1906,  9.40  a.  m.  Wind,  northeast,  light.  Tide,  high, 
rising.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore  was  one-half  cubic  yard  vegetable  matter,  prac- 
tically all  seaweed  with  some  driftwood.  No  odor.  No  garbage  or  sewage  seen  in  water  or 
on  shore  except  as  noted  above.  Guard  says  there  has  been  no  trouble  this  season 
from  garbage  coming  ashore  even  after  strong  south  winds.  Said  that  people  who 
live  along  the  shore  dump  their  garbage  on  the  shore  at  night,  which  would  account  for 
what  is  found. 

Seaside  Boat  Landing  on  Rockaway  Inlet.  July  11,  1906,  10.30  a.  m.  Wind,  north- 
east, light.  Tide,  high,  rising.  Guard  on  beach  above  reported  complaints  of  garbage 
coming  up  into  inlet,  during  south  wind.  Men  interviewed,  said  garbage  floated  up  into 
Jamaica  bay  after  a  south  wind.  Saw  none  myself.  Only  seaweed. 

Far  Rockaway.  A  leading  bathing  place.  July  11,  1906,  11.45  a.  m.  Wind,  north- 
east. Tide,  high,  full.  In  400  square  feet  shore  one-fourth  cubic  yard  vegetable  mat- 
ter; mainly  seaweed,  some  driftwood.  No  odor.  No  garbage  in  water  or  on  shore  ex- 
cept as  above  noted.  Guard  says  there  has  been  no  trouble  this  season  from  garbage 
coming  ashore  even  after  strong  south  winds. 

Manhattan  Beach.  July  11,  1906,  2.30  p.  m.  Wind,  south,  light.  Tide,  high,  fall- 
ing. In  400  square  feet  of  shore  one-eightli  cubic  yard  vegetable  matter.  No  garbage 
on  beach  or  in  water.  Heard  reports  in  Rockaway  that  this  beach  was  polluted 
with  garbage  but  found  that  the  seaweed  only  caused  the  trouble.  No  garbage  has 
been  seen  on  the  shore  this  season  to  speak  of,  even  after  several  days  of  southerly 
winds,  according  to  the  life  guards  at  the  bathing  beach.  They  said  it  was  not  so  bad 
as  in  former  years. 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JEKSEY          369 

Brighton  Beach.  Bathing  shore  east  of  Brighton  Beach  Hotel.  July  11,  1906, 
3.30  p.  m.  Wind,  south,  light.  Tide,  half  high,  falling.  Shore  clean  except  for  sea- 
weed. No  garbage  seen  on  shore  or  in  water.  One  guard  says  there  was  a  good 
deal  of  garbage  on  the  shore  after  south  winds  in  June.  Had  not  seen  it  since,  ex- 
ccp!  on  Saturday  last,  when  there  was  some  in  the  water. 

A  Leading  Bathing  Place.  July  11,  1906,  3.50  p.  m.  Wind,  south,  light.  Tide,  half 
high,  falling.  Shore  quite  clean.  No  complaint  of  garbage  in  water  this  season  accord- 
ing to  guards. 

Coney  Island.  A  principal  bathing  point.  July  11,  1906,  4.30  p.  m.  Wind, 
south,  light.  Tide,  low,  falling.  Shore  clean.  No  garbage  to  any  extent  this  season. 
Banana  skins  and  orange  peels  thrown  on  beach  by  bathers.  Shore  cleaned  every 
morning,  as  are  other  shores  noted  above,  and  scarcely  anything  but  seaweed  and 
driftwood  found  in  rakings;  even  after  strong  south  winds. 

Summary.    Practically  no  garbage  on  Rockaway  or  Coney  Island  shores. 

EOCKAWAY  POINT  TO  HOLLAND 

Rockaway  Park.  Shore  of  Eockaway  inlet,  foot  of  Fifth  avenue.  July  18,  1906, 
10.20  a.  m.  Wind,  southwest  by  south.  Tide,  low,  rising.  No  garbage  on  shore  nor 
in  water.  Sewage  on  water  and  shore  from  sewers  emptying  nearby. 

Belle  Harbor.  Rockaway  Park  near  Life  Saving  Station.  South  shore.  July  18, 
1906,  11.30  a.  m.  Wind,  southwest  by  south.  Tide,  low,  rising.  In  400  square  feet 
of  shore  8  cubic  feet  vegetable  matter,  mainly  wood  and  seaweed. 

Rockaway  Park.  Popular  bathing  beach.  July  18, 1906, 1.10  p.  m.  Wind,  south- 
west by  south.  Tide,  half  high,  rising.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore  4  cubic  feet  vege- 
table matter,  mainly  driftwood  and  seaweed. 

From  Sea  Beach  House,  Seaside  to  Iron  Pier.  July  18,  1906,  2.20  p.  m.  Wind, 
southwest  by  south.  Tide,  half  full,  rising.  Large  quantity  of  corn  husks  and  imper- 
fect ears  of  corn.  Averaged  1  cubic  foot  in  400  square  feet  of  shore.  Undoubtedly 
thrown  into  water  at  this  beach  early  this  morning  as  they  were  not  much  decayed 
nor  much  water  soaked,  and  practically  no  other  garbage  seen  with  them  except  a  few 
decayed  vegetables. 

Rockaway  Beach.  July  18,  1906,  3.45  p.  m.  Wind  southwest  by  south,  light.  Tide, 
three-fourth  full,  rising.  No  garbage  on  shore.  Shore  kept  clean.  Observer  says  no 
garbage  worth  mentioning  has  come  ashore  this  season. 

Large  Hotel,  Holland,  Rockaway  Beach.  July  18,  1906,  4.20  p.  m.  Wind,  south- 
west by  south.  Tide,  three-fourth  full,  rising.  Seaweed  and  driftwood  seen  on  bath- 
ing beach  to  slight  extent. 


370  DATA   COLLECTED 

Summary.  Shore  of  Kockaway  Beach  shows  little  evidence  of  decayed  garbage. 
The  history  is  practically  negative.  Wind  was  light.  It  would  have  been  more  favor- 
able for  garbage  on  shore  if  south. 

HAMMELS  TO  SEASIDE 

Hammels  Station,  Rockairay  Beach.  July  24,  190G,  10.15  a.  m.  Wind,  north- 
east, light.  Tide,  full,  falling.  Along  200  feet  of  shore  in  space  20  feet  back  from 
water,  decayed  vegetables,  pieces  fat  meat,  corks,  paper,  cloth  and  straw.  Seaweed 
and  driftwood.  In  400  square  feet  (20  x  20)  about  one-half  cubic  foot  garbage. 

Shore  Between  Hammels  and  Arverne.  July  24,  1906,  11.10  a.  m.  Wind,  north- 
east, light.  Tide,  high,  falling.  Same  as  above,  average  one-half  cubic  foot  garbage 
in  400  square  feet  up  to  beach  controlled  by  Arverne  Association.  This  cleaned  every 
morning  by  Italians.  Near  Hammel  was  cigar  store  Indian,  a  bed  and  a  trunk. 

Arverne  Beach.  July  24,  1906,  11.30  a.  m.  Wind,  northeast,  light.  Tide,  high, 
falling.  Shore  kept  clean  by  guard.  Observer  says  garbage  in  considerable  amount 
comes  ashore  after  south  wind  of  a  day  or  two. 

Shore  Between  Arverne  and  Edgemere.  July  24,  1906,  1.10  a.  m.  Wind,  north- 
east, light.  Tide,  half  low,  falling.  Considerable  garbage  all  along  shore.  All  sorts 
of  decayed  vegetables  and  pieces  of  fat  meat.  In  400  square  feet  ( 20  x  20 ) .  Average, 
1  cubic  foot.  Garbage,  all  decayed  and  evidently  from  dumping  scows.  Also  bottles, 
tin  cans,  mattresses,  seaweed,  driftwood,  corks,  etc. 

Bathing  Beach  Near  a  Much  Frequented  Club.  July  24,  1906,  2.05  p.  in.  Wind, 
northeast,  light.  Tide,  low,  falling.  Shore  kept  clean  by  guard. 

Beach  Between  Edgemere  and  Far  Rockaicay.  July  24,  1906,  3.15  p.  m.  Wind, 
northeast,  light.  Tide,  low,  ebb.  Considerable  garbage  along  shore.  In  400  square 
feet  about  one  cubic  yard. 

A  Bathing  Beach,  Far  Rockaway.  July  24,  1906,  4  p.  m.  Wind,  northeast,  light. 
Tide,  low,  rising.  Beach  kept  clean.  Very  little  garbage  seen. 

Bathing  Beach,  Seaside,  Rockaway  Beach.  July  24,  1906,  5.05  p.  in.  Wind,  north- 
east, light.  Tide,  low,  rising.  Found  man  dumping  garbage  on  top  of  pile  of  refuse 
to  be  burned.  Said  it  was  the  customary  thing  here.  Good  deal  of  fresh  garbage 
between  sea  and  boardwalk.  Had  not  been  in  water. 

Summary.  Considerable  garbage  where  shore  is  not  kept  clean  for  bathing.  De- 
cayed vegetables,  bread,  fat  meat,  etc.,  brought  in  by  the  southerly  winds  of  the  past 
few  days.  Odor  not  objectionable. 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          371 

lUtKJHTON  BEACH  TO  MANHATTAN  BKACH 

Brighton  Beach.  July  1C,  1906,  1.35  p.  m.  Wind,  south  by  southeast,  fresh. 
Tide,  half  full,  rising.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore  16  square  feet  of  vegetable  matter, 
mainly  seaweed,  very  little  driftwood.  Considerable  garbage  constantly  being  depos- 
ited on  shore  and  cleaned  off  every  15  or  20  minutes. 

Shore  Xcar  Manhattan  Beach.  July  16,  1906,  2.40  p.  in.  Wind,  south  by  south- 
east. Tide,  half  full,  rising.  Water  noticeably  full  of  garbage  for  some  distance 
east  of  Brighton  Beach. 

Manhattan  Beach.  July  16,  1906,  3.25  p.  in.  Wind,  south  by  southeast.  Tide, 
nearly  full,  rising.  Shore  not  so  much  polluted  as  at  Brighton  as  tide  carries  it 
toward  that  point  and  wind  not  so  favorable.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore  six  square 
feet  seaweed  and  some  driftwood  and  decayed  vegetables.  This  beach  also  partly  pro- 
tected by  sand  bar  just  east  of  Oriental  Hotel.  Guard  says  that  011  Saturday  with  a 
southeast  wind  there  came  ashore  in  addition  to  some  garbage  the  following  dead 
animals:  1  black  cat,  1  (51b.)  chicken  and  3  rats. 

Manhattan  Beach,  Baths  to  end  of  Point  beyond  Oriental  Hotel.  July  16,  1906, 
4.40  p.  m.  Wind,  south  by  southeast.  Tide,  full,  falling.  Less  garbage  noted  in 
water  along  bulkhead  than  west  of  Manhattan  Beach,  apparently  because  of  direction 
of  wind,  the  tide  and  the  sand  bar. 

Summary.  Shores  of  Brighton  Beach  and  Manhattan  Beach,  with  the  wind  south 
by  southeast  and  rather  fresh,  favorable  for  garbage  being  carried  to  these  shores 
from  alleged  point  of  discharge;  arc  in  rather  bad  condition.  Considerable  garbage 
found  on  shore,  although  beaches  were  being  constantly  cleaned.  All  vegetables 
much  decayed  and  water  soaked. 

SKA  GATE  TO  WEST  BBIGI1TON 

Sea  Gate.  Nortons  Point.  July  14,  1906,  10.15  a.  in.  Wind,  southeast,  fresh. 
Tide,  half  full,  rising.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore  one-eighth  cubic  yard  vegetable 
matter,  mainly  driftwood,  with  some  seaweed.  No  decayed  vegetable  matter  or  sew- 
age on  shore  or  in  water. 

Sea  Gate  Beach.  Nortons  Point  to  Entrance  of  Sea  Gate  Association.  July  14, 1906, 
11.20  a.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  fresh.  Tide,  half  full,  rising.  Less  driftwood  than  at 
the  point.  More  seaweed.  No  garbage  or  sewage  on  shore  or  in  water.  Observer 
said  since  July  1  the  shore  has  been  quite  free  from  garbage,  even  after  south  winds; 
llmt  during  June  same  came  ashore,  being  especially  bad  on  foggy  day;  17  dead  ani- 
mals landed. 


372  DATA   COLLECTED 

A  Popular  Hotel  Near  Sea  Gate,  Coney  Island.  July  14,  1906,  1.05  p.  in.  Wind, 
southeast,  fresh.  Tide,  nearly  full,  rising.  Shore  clean  except  for  shells;  some 
seaweed  and  driftwood.  No  garbage  seen. 

Sea  Gate  Beach  Near  West  Brighton.  July  14,  1906,  1.50  p.  m.  Wind,  southeast, 
fresh.  Tide,  nearly  full,  rising.  Only  seaweed  and  driftwood,  one-eighth  cubic 
yard  in  400  square  feet  of  shore. 

Coney  Island.  July  14, 1906,  2.45  p.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  fresh.  Tide,  full,  falling. 
Seaweed  and  driftwood.  Shore  very  clean.  Observer  says  he  has  noticed  very  little 
garbage  on  shore  this  season. 

A  Leading  Amusement  Center,  Coney  Island.  July  14,  1906,  3.35  p.  m.  Wind, 
southeast,  fresh.  Tide,  full,  falling.  Shore  clean;  no  trouble  since  July  1. 

A  Popular  Bathing  Beach,  Coney  Island.  July  14,  1906,  4.20  p.  m.  Wind,  south- 
east, fresh.  Tide,  half  full,  falling.  Banana  peels,  orange  peels,  etc.  (not  decayed), 
thrown  by  bathers  on  shore.  No  trouble  except  from  seaweed  and  sea  shells. 

Summary.    No  garbage  to  be  seen  on  shores  of  Sea  Gate  or  Coney  Island. 

CONEY   ISLAND   AND   MANHATTAN    BEACHES 

Coney  Island.  August  1,  1906,  10.20  a.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  light.  Tide,  low, 
rising.  No  garbage  on  beach  except  few  pieces  of  grease  and  bread. 

A  Popular  Bathing  Beach.  August  1,  1906,  11.15  a.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  light. 
Tide,  low,  rising.  As  above. 

Brighton  Beach.  August  1,  1906,  1.10  p.  m.  Wind,  northeast,  very  light,  Tide, 
low,  rising.  Few  pieces  of  grease,  1  decayed  tomato,  1  apple.  Nothing  else  but  sea- 
weed and  a  little  driftwood.  Local  observer  says  that  they  have  had  no  garbage  on 
this  beach  worth  mentioning  for  some  time,  that  on  July  29  and  30  a  very  little  came 
ashore. 

Manhattan  Beach.  August  1,  1906,  2.35  p.  m.  Wind,  northeast,  light.  Tide,  one- 
half  high,  rising.  No  garbage  on  shore  except  few  pieces  of  grease  in  the  sand. 

Along  Neckuxiter  Beyond  Oriental  Hotel.  August  1,  1906,  3.20  p.  m.  Wind,  north- 
east, light.  Tide,  three-fourths  high,  rising,  full  5  p.  m.  No  garbage  seen  in  water. 

Summary.     Coney  Island  shore  very  free  from  garbage. 

THE   SHOEES   OF   STATEN  ISLAND 
SOUTH    BEACH    AND    MIDLAND    BEACH 

South  Beach,  Staten  Island.  July  13,  1906,  10.10  a.  in.  Wind,  east,  moderate. 
Tide,  half  full,  rising.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore  one  cubic  yard  vegetable  matter, 
mainly  driftwood  with  some  seaweed  and  decayed  vegetables.  Quite  a  quantity  of 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          373 

decayed  vegetable  matter  brought  ashore  by  east  wiiid,  evidently  from  dumping 
scows.  Guard  says  it  was  worse  last  Friday  and  Saturday.  No  particular  odor,  ex- 
cept from  dead  turkey  and  fish. 

Along  Shore  from  South  Beach  to  Midland  Beach.  July  13,  1906,  11.30  a.  m. 
Wind,  east.  Tide,  half  full,  rising.  Practically  the  same  as  above  except  a  great 
amount  of  driftwood  as  beach  not  cleaned  as  are  bathing  beaches. 

Midland  Beach,  a  Leading  Bathing  Beach.  July  13,  1906,  2.25  p.  in.  Wind,  east, 
moderate.  Tide,  full  at  1.30,  falling.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore  one  cubic  yard 
vegetable  matter  mainly  driftwood  and  seaweed.  Guard  says  beach  was  bad  last  Sat- 
urday and  Sunday  after  east  wind. 

Shore  South  of  Midland  Beach  to  the  Great  Kills.  July  13,  1906,  4.15  p.  m. 
Wind,  east.  Tide,  half  full,  falling.  About  the  same  but  large  amount  of  driftwood, 
as  beaches  not  cleaned. 

Summary.  Shore  of  Staten  Island  polluted  with  garbage  blown  ashore  by  the 
southeast  wind  yesterday. 

SOUTH  BEACH  AND  MIDLAND  BEACH 

Fort  Wadsworth  to  Millers  Beach.  July  25,  1906,  10.15  a.  m.  Wind,  east,  light. 
Tide,  full.  Very  little  garbage  along  shore.  Some  seaweed  and  driftwood.  Slight  evi- 
dence of  garbage  in  the  shape  of  decayed  vegetables  and  particles  of  bread  and  fat  meat. 

Millers  Bathing  Beach.  July  25,  1906,  11.20  a.  m.  Wind,  east,  light,  Tide,  high, 
falling.  Shore  clean.  No  garbage  now  and  none  seen  recently  as  winds  unfavorable. 

South  to  Midland  Beach.  July  25,  1906,  1.15  p.  m.  Wind,  east,  light.  Tide,  half 
low,  falling.  Not  much  garbage.  Some  seaweed  and  driftwood. 

Ocean  View  Beach.  Midland  Beach.  July  25,  1906,  3.20  p.  m.  Wind,  east,  light. 
Tide,  low,  falling.  Shore  kept  very  clean.  Reports  indicate  no  trouble  lately. 

Midland  Beach  South  of  Ocean  View  Bathing  Beach.  July  25,  1906,  3.50  p.  m. 
Wind,  east,  light.  Tide,  low,  falling.  Not  much  garbage  on  shore. 

Summary.  No  evidence  of  garbage  pollution  of  late,  as  no  long  continued  southeast 
winds  of  sufficient  force  to  bring  it  to  this  shore. 

FORT  WADSWORTH  TO  MIDLAND  BEACH 

Soutli  Beach,  Staten  Island  Shore  Next  to  Fort  Wadsworth.  August  20,  1906, 
10.20  a.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  light.  Tide,  one-half  low,  falling.  Along  200  feet  of 
shore  at  high  water  mark  decayed  fruit  and  vegetables.  This  probably  came  ashore 
within  past  day  or  so. 

South  Beach  Bathing  Beaches.  August  20,  1906,  11.30  a.  m.  Wind,  southeast. 
Tide,  low,  falling.  Cleaned  this  morning  at  10.  Observer  reports  that  some  garbage 
comes  ashore  after  several  days  of  southeast  winds. 


374  DATA   COLLECTED 

Midland  Beach  North  of  Bathing  Beaches  to  Small  Inlet.  August  20,  1906, 
2.20  p.  m.  Wind,  southeast.  Tide,  low,  falling.  Estimated  about  one-tenth  cubic 
foot  garbage  in  400  square  feet. 

Midland  Beach  Bathing  Beaches.  August  20,  1906,  4.10  p.  in.  Wind,  southeast. 
Tide,  low,  rising.  Cleaned  this  morning.  A  few  pieces  of  garbage  on  beaches. 

Summary.    Garbage  comes  ashore  here  after  two  or  three  days  of  southeast  wind. 

THE  SHORES  OF  NEW  JERSEY 

ATLANTIC  HIGHLANDS  TO  OCEAN  GROVE 

Atlantic  Highlands.  July  10,  1906,  10.30  a.  in.  Wind,  west,  light.  Tide,  high, 
rising.  Shore  clean  except  for  seaweed  and  occasional  driftwood. 

Normandie,  near  Life  Saving  Station.  July  10,  1906,  10.50  a.  m.  Wind,  west,  light. 
Tide,  high,  rising.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore,  lVi>  cubic  yards  vegetable  matter,  1)5  per 
cent,  or  more  seaweed  or  driftwood,  remainder  decayed  vegetables  and  refuse.  No  odor 
noticeable.  No  garbage  or  sewage  seen  in  water. 

Seabright.  Shore  just  north  of  Seabright  Beach  Club  House.  (Beach  back  of 
Club  House  cleaned  every  morning.)  July  10,  1906,  1J.10  a.  in.  Wind,  west,  light. 
Tide,  high,  falling.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore,  1  cubic  yard  vegetable  matter,  95  per 
cent,  seaweed  and  driftwood.  Rest,  decayed  vegetables  and  refuse.  No  odor  except 
from  dead  fish  and  pig  skin  nearby.  No  garbage  or  sewage  seen  in  water. 

Long  Branch,  West  End  Bathing  Beach.  July  10,  1906.  1.10  p.  m.  WTind,  west, 
light.  Tide,  high,  falling.  In  400  square  feet  of  shore,  one-half  cubic  yard  vegetable 
matter,  mainly  seaweed,  some  driftwood.  No  garbage  or  sewage  noted  in  water. 

Asbury  Park,  Fourth  Avenue  Bathing  Beach.  July  10,  1906,  3.15  p.  m.  Wind, 
west,  light.  Tide,  half  high,  falling.  Shore  very  clean  except  for  seaweed  mixed 
with  sand.  Slight  scum  of  sewage  on  water  noted  at  one  point  from  sewers  which 
empty  400  or  500  feet  out  from  shore  all  along  the  beach.  No  garbage  in  the  water. 
No  odor. 

Ocean  Grove,  Ross's  Bathing  Beach.  July  10,  1906,  4.10  p.  in.  Wind,  west,  light. 
Tide,  low,  falling.  Shore  very  clean  except  for  seaweed  in  the  sand.  Sewers  empty 
about  400  feet  out  from  low  water  mark.  No  sewage  or  garbage  noted  in  water.  No 
odor. 

Summary.  The  beaches  from  Normandie  to  Ocean  Grove  are  polluted  with  de- 
cayed vegetables,  dead  animals  and  particles  of  grease,  when  the  wind  lias  blown  from 
the  east  or  northeast  for  any  length  of  time.  An  observer  at  Seabright  said  that 
when  the  scows  dump  at  10  or  11  a.  m.  near  the  Scotland  Light,  the  decayed  vege- 
tables come  ashore  that  evening,  if  there  is  an  east  or  northeast  wind.  Said  there  had 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          375 

been  no  trouble  lately.  An  observer  at  Long  Branch  (West  End)  said  that  during 
the  last  half  of  June  the  water  was  filled  with  decayed  vegetables,  grease  and  dead 
animals.  Since  July  1  he  had  not  noticed  anything  very  objectionable.  An  observer 
at  Asbury  Park  (Fourth  avenue)  said  that  decayed  vegetables,  grease  and  dead  ani- 
mals came  ashore  after  an  east  or  northeast  wind.  Was  worse  during  last  of  June 
and  Thursday,  Friday  and  Saturday  of  last  week.  An  observer  at  Ocean  Grove  said 
that  the  water  was  full  of  decayed  vegetables  during  the  latter  half  of  June  after  an 
east  wind,  also  last  Saturday.  Said  the  bathers  did  not  mind  the  sewage  in  the  water, 
but  disliked  the  large  prominent  evidences  of  decay,  such  as  bad  vegetables  and  dead 
animals.  To-day  with  a  west  wind  blowing  the  beaches  were  very  clean,  not  enough 
garbage  or  refuse  of  any  sort  to  be  objectionable.  The  bathing  masters  at  Asbury 
said  that  all  the  beaches  there  and  at  Ocean  Grove  are  cleaned  every  morning  at  7. 
On  a  day  like  this  when  the  wind  is  west,  it  takes  them  one-half  hour  to  do  the  work. 
When  the  wind  is  east  or  northeast  it  requires  two  to  three  hours  to  get  the  beach 
free  from  seaweed,  driftwood,  decayed  vegetable  matter,  dead  animals,  etc. 

SANDY   HOOK 

Sandy  Hook,  N.  J,  Ocean  Shore.  August  17,  1906,  6.15  p.  m.  Wind,  southeast, 
light.  Tide,  high,  falling.  Some  garbage  along  shore  still  wet  which  came  ashore  to- 
day. No  great  quantity. 

Summary.    Much  garbage  on  this  shore,  which  is  never  cleaned. 

LONG   BRANCH   TO  SEABKIGHT 

Long  Branch,  a  Frequented  Bathing  Beach.  July  27, 1906, 3  p.  m.  Wind,  south.  Tide, 
one-half  low,  falling.  No  garbage  on  this  shore,  which  is  kept  clean  and  very  little 
on  shore  to  north  which  is  not  cleaned  daily.  Local  observer  said  they  had  experi- 
enced very  little  trouble  from  garbage  since  last  June.  Some  oranges  and  lemons 
Avere  found  thrown  on  beach  evidently  by  bathers  or  from  passing  boats ;  not  much  de- 
cayed and  no  other  vegetables.  Some  driftwod  and  seaweed. 

Scalright  Club  House  Beach.  July  27,  1906,  4.20  p.  m.  Wind,  south.  Tide,  low, 
falling.  No  garbage  on  this  shore,  which  is  kept  clean.  On  shore  to  the  north  found 
some  garbage  but  hardly  worth  mentioning.  This  shore  cleaned  twice  a  week,  not 
to-day.  Some  driftwood  and  seaweed.  A  life  guard  will  keep  daily  report.  He  said 
garbage  came  ashore  after  any  strong  east  wind  and  that  the  northeast  winds  yester- 
day and  day  before  carried  great  quantities  of  garbage  from  dumping  grounds  down 
past  his  beach.  He  saw  it  going  by  and  much  of  it  was  caught  in  the  fish  nets  set  off 
the  Club  House,  about  700  feet  from  shore.  Very  little  came  ashore. 


376  DATA   COLLECTED 

Nummary.  Long  Branch  and  Seabright  shores  not  polluted  by  garbage.  North- 
east winds,  of  late,  took  garbage  further  down  the  coast,  according  to  reports.  Sea- 
bright  observer  reports  trouble  every  lime  fresh  east  wind  blows.  Local  observer 
says  he  has  not  seen  much  garbage  since  June. 

SEAliRIGHT  TO  POINT  PLEASANT 

Seabright,  N.  J.  August  13,  1906,  11.00  a.  in.  Wind,  northeast,  fresh.  Tide, 
high,  rising.  On  a  line  10  feet  wide,  about  30  feet  back  from  water,  and  40  feet  long, 
i.  e.,  in  400  square  feet,  was  about  one  cubic  foot  garbage  which  came  ashore  last  Thurs- 
day and  Friday,  August  9  and  10.  Decayed  fruits  and  vegetables.  Good  many  pieces 
of  fat  meat  and  grease.  Great  qiiantity  of  burned  or  over-roasted  coffee.  Some  gar- 
bage is  coming  ashore  this  morning.  Not  much  collected  so  far.  A  bathing  master 
burned  a  large  quantity  of  garbage  and  one  dead  dog  on  Friday. 

Asbury  Park,  N.  J.,  Fourth  Avenue  Baths.  August  13,  1906,  2.20  p.  m.  Wind., 
northeast,  fresh.  Tide,  high,  falling,  full  at  1.30  p.  m.  Some  garbage  coming  ashore 
now.  Various  sorts  of  decayed  fruit  and  vegetables,  pieces  of  fat  meat  and  grease, 
corks  and  tin  boxes.  No  great  quantity.  Noticed  that  considerable  was  washed  up  on 
steep  beach  and  then  carried  out  again  with  receding  tide.  S.  here  reports  great 
quantities  garbage,  also  dead  cats,  dogs,  fowls,  etc.,  as  coming  ashore  August  9  and  10. 

Bradley  Beach,  N.  J.,  from  Ocean  Grove  line  to  bathing  pavilion.  August  13, 
1906,  4.25  p.  m.  Wind,  northeast,  fresh.  Tide,  one-half  low,  falling.  Along  this  one- 
fourth  mile  of  shore  an  immense  quantity  of  garbage  has  come  ashore  since  the 
beach  was  cleaned  this  morning,  and  is  still  coming  in.  Most  of  it  is  at  to-day's 
high  water  mark.  Observer  said  he  thought  more  garbage  came  ashore  last  Friday, 
August  10,  than  at  any  time  since  June.  Observer  said  that  on  Friday  a  great  many 
people  put  on  their  clothes  and  left  the  water  in  disgust  after  a  few  minutes,  as 
it  was  so  full  of  vegetables  and  grease.  One  woman  decided  to  leave  after  a  dead 
dog  had  come  in  contact  with  her  face.  He  said  it  was  twice  as  bad  as  to-day.  If 
so,  it  must  have  been  very  filthy.  The  only  way  to  account  for  the  much  greater 
amount  here  than  along  the  Asbury  and  Ocean  Grove  beaches  seems  to  be  on  the 
theory  that  currents  exist  here  along  the  shore.  The  more  gradual  slope  of  the 
beach  also  prevents  the  refuse  from  being  washed  off  again.  It  is  carried  far  ashore. 

Summary.  Great  quantity  of  garbage  lias  come  ashore  to-day  on  Bradley  Beach. 
A  less  quantity  on  Asbury  Park,  Ocean  Grove.  Seabright  was  visited  earlier 
before  full  tide.  Large  quantities  of  garbage  came  ashore  on  all  these  beaches  August 
9  and  10. 


•    STAKE  BOAT    FOR  DUMPING 

1100  CAAT  LOADS  OF  GARBAGE 
A  DUMPED  HEBE  PER  DAY 

&. 

£jf 


Pollution  of  Beaches  by  Garbage 

Noted  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission 


SUMAAER    OF    OO6 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          377 

SBABRIGHT  TO  BELMAR 

Scab-right,  N.  J.  August  6,  1906,  10.50  a.  m.  Wind,  south,  light.  Tide,  high,  fall- 
ing. Good  deal  of  garbage  on  shore.  On  a  line  20  feet  wide,  about  50  feet  back  from 
water,  decayed  fruit  and  vegetables.  Estimated  quantity  of  garbage:.!  cubic  foot  in 
400  square  feet.  This  came  up  Thursday  and  Friday,  August  2  and  3,  with  wind 
northeast.  Good  deal  of  driftwood  and  seaweed.  Good  many  dead  fish  came  up  this 
morning  but  very  little  else. 

West  End  Bathing  Beach,  Loin/  Branch,  U-n  cleaned  Beach  to  the  North.  August 
6,  1906,  1.20  p.  in.  Wind,  south,  light.  Tide,  one-half  high,  falling.  About  one-half 
cubic  foot  garbage  in  400  square  feet.  Less  than  at  Seabright  but  noticeable.  About 
the  same  variety  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  considerable  grease.  Observer  says  the 
only  thing  that  gave  trouble  on  Thursday  and  Friday  was  the  grease  which  came 
ashore. 

Asbury  1'ark.  August  6,  1906,  3.10  p.  in.  Wind,  south,  light.  Tide,  low,  falling. 
Observer  reports  great  deal  of  garbage  coming  ashore  August  2  and  3  Avith  northeast 
wind.  The  beach  has  been  thoroughly  cleaned  since  then. 

ISwtcli  Between  Ocean  Grove  and  Bel  mar.  August  6,  1906,  4.40  p.  m.  Wind, 
south,  light.  Tide,  low.  About  one-half  cubic  foot  garbage  on  shore  in  400  square 
feet.  All  the  fruit  and  vegetables  enumerated  above.  Good  deal  of  grease  on  the 
shore.  This  shore  not  cleaned  since  August  2. 

Xiuninary.  Jersey  beaches  from  Seabright  to  Beluiar  show  by  their  present  con- 
dition that  a  good  deal  of  garbage  came  ashore  Thursday  and  Friday,  August  2  and 
3,  with  northeast  wind.  Decayed  fruit  and  vegetables,  fat  meat,  grease,  etc.,  evi- 
dently from  the  New  York  dumping  scows. 

POINT  PLEASANT  TO  ASBURY  PARK 

I'oint  I'lciixant.N.J.  Casino  Beach.  July  28,  1906,  10.20  a.  in.  Wind,  south, 
light.  Tide,  high,  rising.  Bathing  bead)  kept  clean,  but  to  the  north,  Avhere  beach 
not  cleaned,  was  large  quantity  of  garbage.  Also  bottles,  driftwood,  seaweed,  corks 
and  tin  cans.  Guard  said  large  quantity  of  garbage  came  ashore  Wednesday  and 
Thursday,  July  25  and  26,  with  fresh  northeast  winds  and  that  they  frequently  were 
troubled  with  it  after  strong  northeast  winds. 

Asbury  Park.  Fourth  Avenue.  July  28,  1906,  12.15  p.  m.  Wind,  south,  light. 
Tide,  full,  nearly  rising.  Beach  kept  clean,  very  little  garbage  now.  Life  guard  here 
said  large  quantity  of  garbage  came  ashore  Wednesday  and  Thursday,  July  25  and 
26,  with  northeast  wind  and  that  it  took  him  one  and  one-half  hours  to  bury  the 
decayed  vegetables,  fat  meat  and  three  dead  cats  on  Thursday. 


378  DATA    COLLECTED 

Ocean  Grove.  Bathing  Beach.  July  28,  1906,  2.05  p.  m.  Wind,  south,  light.  Tide, 
high,  falling.  Beach  kept  clean.  No  garbage  to  be  seen.  Observer  says  good  deal 
came  ashore  Thursday  and  some  Wednesday,  July  26  and  25. 

Shore  to  the  North  of  Belmar.  July  28,  1906,  4.20  p.  m.  Wind,  south,  light.  Tide, 
low,  falling.  Shore  not  cleaned  here  often.  A  good  deal  of  garbage  present  which 
probably  came  ashore  Wednesday  and  Thursday,  July  25  and  26,  with  northeast 
wind.  In  400  square  feet  about  one  and  one-half  cubic  feet  garbage,  decayed  vege- 
tables and  pieces  of  fat  meat.  Also  seaweed  and  driftwood.  Slight  odor  nearby 
from  decayed  meat,  very  little  from  decayed  vegetables,  which  had  not  been  on  shore 
long  after  being  washed  with  the  salt  water. 

Summary.  The  Jersey  coast  between  Asbury  Park  and  Point  Pleasant  (inclu- 
sive) received  a  good  deal  of  garbage  from  the  ocean  on  July  25  and  26,  when  the  wind 
was  northeast.  This  is  favorable  for  driving  it  there  from  the  dumping  grounds. 


ASBUEY  PARK  TO  POINT  PLEASANT 

Asbury  Park.  August  7,  1906,  8.30  a.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  light.  Tide,  high,  rising. 
Very  little  garbage  this  morning. 

Bradley  Beach,  opposite  Station  New  Jersey  Central  Railroad.  August  7th,  1906, 
9.40  a.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  light.  Tide,  high,  rising.  Garbage  which  came  ashore 
August  2  and  3  pretty  well  cleaned  off.  None  came  up  during  night. 

Spring  Lake.  August  7,  1906,  11.40  a.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  light.  Tide,  high,  fall- 
ing. Shore  kept  clean.  Some  pieces  of  grease  in  the  sand  which  the  rakes  of  the 
cleaners  missed. 

Sea  Girt,  opposite  State  Camp.  August  7,  1906,  1.25  p.  m.  Wind,  southeast.  Tide, 
high,  falling.  About  J/i  cubic  foot  garbage  in  400  square  feet,  estimating  on  a  line  about 
50  feet  back  from  water.  Probably  came  up  August  2  and  3.  Variety  of  decayed  fruit 
and  vegetables,  pieces  of  grease  and  fat  meat.  Tin  boxes,  tooth  powder,  corks,  bottles, 
bicycle  tire,  seaweed  and  driftwood. 

Point  Pleasant,  N.  J.  August  7,  1906,  3.35  p.  m.  Wind,  southeast,  light,  Tide, 
one-half  low,  falling.  Along  1,000  feet  of  shore  to  the  north  on  line  50  feet  back  from 
the  water,  small  quantity  decayed  fruit  and  vegetables.  Not  enough  garbage  to  esti- 
mate. 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          37!) 

Point  Pleasant,  about  one-half  mile  south  of  above.  August  7,  1906,  4.20  p.  m. 
Wiml,  southeast,  light.  Tide,  low,  falling.  Shore  clean  now.  Observer  said  garbage 
in  considerable  quantity  came  ashore  August  2  and  3,  and  that  a  good  deal  came  in  on 
the  ebb  tide  and  was  washed  out  at  the  next  high  tide.  Good  deal  was  raked  up. 

Summary.  Some  garbage  on  Jersey  shore  between  Asbury  Park  and  Point  Pleas- 
ant thrown  up  August  2  and  3  by  northeast  wind.  Garbage  includes  great  variety  of 
decayed  fruit  arid  vegetables,  grease  and  fat  meat,  corks,  tin  cans,  etc. 


ASBURY  PARK  TO  SEA  SIDE  PARK 

Asbury  Park.  August  14th,  6.30  a.  m.  Wind,  southwest,  light.  Tide,  low,  rising. 
Very  little  garbage  came  ashore  here  during  night  or  since  last  observation  at  2.20  p.  m. 
yesterday,  because  of  decrease  in  wind  movement  in  afternoon  and  change  in  direction 
of  wind  to  southwest  in  evening. 

Bradley  Beach.  August  14,  1906,  7.15  a.  in.  Wind,  southwest,  light.  Tide,  low, 
rising.  Very  little  addition  to  amount  of  garbage  noted  in  last  observation  of  this 
shore  at  4.23  p.  m.  yesterday,  owing  to  decreased  velocity  of  wind  and  later  change 
in  its  direction. 

Point  Pleasant.  August  14,  1906,  10.30  a.  m.  Wind,  southwest,  light.  Tide, 
one-half  high,  rising.  About  one-fourth  cubic  foot  of  garbage  in  400  square  feet  of 
shore,  which  came  ashore  last  Friday,  August  10th,  according  to  report  of  local 
observer.  Beach  reported  rather  filthy  on  Friday,  but  not  so  bad  as  in  June. 

Sea-  Side  Park,  N.  J.  August  14,  1906,  3.00  p.  m.  Wind,  southwest,  light.  Tide, 
high,  falling.  Quantity  of  garbage  on  this  shore  estimated  at  a  little  less  than  %  cubic 
foot  in  400  square  feet. 

Summary.  Bradley  Beach  seems  to  have  received  more  garbage  of  late  than  any 
spot  on  the  New  Jersey  beaches.  This  was  on  account  of  the  wind  direction  or  the  cur- 
rents along  shore  or  the  gradual  slope  of  thebeach,  or  because  of  all  three. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  garbage  is  reported  to  have  come  ashore  at  Seabright 
and  Asbury  Park  on  August  10.  Not  much  with  northeast  winds  August  13. 

At  Point  Pleasant  and  Sea  Side  Park  hardly  enough  garbage  of  late  to  cause  any 
complaint. 


380  DATA   COLLECTED 

ATLANTIC  CITY 

Shore  from  Inlet  to  Heinze's  Pier.  Auguse  10,  1906,  8.00  a.  in.  Wind,  east  north- 
east, fresh.  Tide,  low,  rising.  Along  this  one-third  mile  of  shore  at  the  north  end  of 
Atlantic  City  a  careful  search  was  made  for  garbage,  as  this  part  is  not  cleaned,  as  are 
the  bathing  beaches.  The  two  life-savers  (United  States)  seen  here  said  they  had  seen  no 
garbage  on  the  shore  this  season.  (They  were  not  on  duty  in  June  and  July.) 

Heinze's  Pier,  South  Along  the  Shore.  August  10,  1906,  9.30  a.  ni.  to  12.30  p.  m. 
Wind,  east  northeast.  Tide,  high,  falling.  Eight  men  were  interviewed  who  were  clean- 
ing up  the  bathing  beaches.  All  agreed  that  they  had  seen  considerable  garbage  come 
ashore  here  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  but  none  since.  Only  one  had  seen  any  since  July 
1,  and  he  referred  to  ears  of  corn,  which  were  evidently  thrown  over  from  a  pier  here,  as 
they  looked  fresh. 

Summary.    Garbage  evidently  came  ashore  at  Atlantic  City  during  June.    On  a 
certain  line  were  found  corks,  bottles  and  tin  boxes  similar  to  those  acompanying  gar- 
bage found  on  other  shores.    The  three  pieces  of  decayed  fruit  found  were  on  the  same 
line,  well  dried,  and  may  have  come  from  local  sources   or   from  passing  steamers, 
also  the  one  piece  of  grease. 


SURFACE  OF  ATLANTIC  OCEAN  BETWEEN  LONG  BEACH  AND  BRADLEY  BEACH,  N.  J., 

AUGUST  17  AND  18,  1906. 

The  wind  was  southeast,  and  of  scarcely  perceptible  velocity. 

According  to  the  Superintendent  of  Final  Disposition  of  the  Department  of  Street 
Cleaning  of  The  City  of  New  York,  no  garbage  had  been  dumped  at  sea  since  August 
15th. 

From  the  Fairway  buoy  at  the  entrance  to  Geduey  channel  the  course  followed 
was  southeast  by  one-half  south  for  fifteen  miles,  measured  by  a  tafrail  log.  At  this 
point  the  schooner  was  found  which  marks  the  point  for  dumping  garbage  which  is  car- 
ried to  sea  by  tugs  from  The  City  of  New  York. 

Large  Garbage  Fields.  Between  the  Gedney  channel  and  the  schooner  there  were 
encountered  two  large  fields  of  floating  garbage  probably  aggregating,  so  far  as  could 
be  seen,  several  hundred  acres  in  extent.  The  garbage  in  this  field  was  so  thick  that 
there  was  no  square  yard  of  water  without  some  particle  of  garbage  visible  from  the 
deck. 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          381 

At  12  M.  the  schooner  was  about  to  be  towed  to  a  new  location  which  lay  north 
by  one-half  east  about  seven  and  one-third  miles.  From  the  schoner  the  tug  proceeded 
westerly  to  within  about  a  mile  or  so  of  the  beach  at  Long  Branch,  New  Jersey.  On 
the  way  a  garbage  field  like  the  one  already  described  but  smaller  in  extent  was 
passed. 

The  tug  turned  southward  at  Long  Branch,  and  followed  the  New  Jersey  coast 
as  far  as  Bradley  Beach. 

Float  Observations.  Opposite  Bradley  Beach,  the  wind  being  south  and  toward 
the  shore,  observations  were  undertaken  with  floats.  Two  floats  were  cast  overboard, 
one  with  an  anchor  and  the  other  without.  Each  float  consisted  of  two  two-inch 
planks  six  feet  long,  bolted  together  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  A  small  flag  raised  on  a 
flagpole  five  feet  long  indicated  the  location  of  the  float.  The  wind  was  south-south- 
east, and  blowing  about  five  or  six  knots  per  hour.  The  tide  was  rising. 

The  free  float  was  followed  for  1  hour  and  13  minutes.  It  was  then  taken  on 
hoard,  and  the  distance  logged  to  the  float  which  was  anchored.  The  distance  was 
three-fourths  of  a  nautical  mile.  The  rate  traveled  was  0.62  nautical  mile  per  hour,  or 
one  mile  in  1  hour  and  37  minutes.  The  direction  taken  by  the  float  was  almost  di- 
rectly down  the  wind  toward  the  New  Jersey  shore.  The  distance  from  the  shore 
was  about  three  miles. 

Fields  of  Garbage  off  Long  Branch.  From  a  point  opposite  Bradley  Beach  the  tug 
took  a  northerly  direction,  following  the  beach  at  a  distance  of  between  two  and  three 
miles,  to  Sandy  Hook.  An  extensive  field  of  garbage  was  encountered  near  Long 
Branch.  It  extended  from  North  Long  Branch  to  Sandy  Hook.  Sometimes  this  float- 
ing garbage  was  so  thick  that  every  square  foot  of  water  contained  at  least  some 
particle;  sometimes  only  one  piece  could  be  seen  in  400  square  feet. 

An  inspection  of  the  shore  of  Sandy  Hook,  which  was  visited  later,  showed 
that  large  quantities  of  garbage  had  come  ashore  on  this  and  previous  days. 

The  Hook  was  rounded  by  the  tug  and  the  night  was  spent  at  the  government 
wharf  at  Sandy  Hook. 

On  August  18th  at  7  A.  M.  the  tug  proceeded  to  sea  by  way  of  Gedney  channel 
and  the  Sandy  Hook  lightship.  The  weather  was  calm,  no  movement  of  air  being  per- 
ceptible. The  course  was  southeast  by  east.  After  logging  17  miles  from  Sandy  Hook 
lightship  the  schooner  which  marked  the  new  location  of  the  dumping  ground  was 
reached. 


382  DATA   COLLECTED 

Garbage-fields  17  Miles  at  Sea.  Between  Sandy  Hook  lightship  and  the  new  loca- 
tion of  the  schooner  the  tug  passed  through  two  extensive  fields  of  garbage.  One  of 
these  was  near  the  lightship;  the  second  was  about  three  miles  west  of  the  schooner.  No 
garbage  had  been  dumped  at  the  schooner  since  she  had  been  towed  to  her  present  loca- 
tion, the  day  before  in  the  early  afternoon. 

From  the  schooner  the  tug  proceeded  north  by  west  toward  Long  Beach,  L.  I.  A 
field  of  several  acres  of  garbage  was  found  about  three  miles  from  the  shore.  When 
within  about  two  miles  of  the  Long  Island  beach  the  tug  turned  westerly  and  followed 
the  shore  line  to  a  point  opposite  Kockaway  Point.  An  extensive  field  of  garbage  was 

passed  opposite  Arverne. 

\ 
Velocity  of  Travel  of  Garbage  Field.    At  a  point  about  two  miles  southwest  of 

Rockaway  bell  buoy  observations  were  made  with  floats.  As  in  the  experiment  of  the 
previous  day  one  float  was  anchored  and  the  other  was  allowed  to  drift.  The  wind 
was  south  by  west  about  seven  miles  per  hour.  The  tide  was  rising.  The  free  float 
was  taken  on  board  1  hour  and  15  minutes  after  it  had  been  set  adrift.  By  logging 
the  distance  from  the  point  where  it  was  picked  up  to  the  point  where  it  was  launched, 
beside  the  anchored  buoy,  it  was  found  that  it  had  drifted  fifteen-sixteenths  of  a  mile. 
This  was  at  the  rate  of  one  mile  in  1  hour  and  25  minutes,  or  about  0.62  miles  per 
hour.  A  small  field  of  garbage  at  the  edge  of  which  the  float  had  been  launched  trav- 
eled as  rapidly  as  did  the  float  itself. 

From  opposite  Eockaway  bell  buoy  the  tug  proceeded  toward  Coney  Island,  fol- 
lowing the  Coney  Island  channel  to  the  Narrows,  and  thence  to  the  Battery. 

Garbage  Fields  in  Lower  Bay.  Garbage  fields  were  passed  on  the  way  opposite 
Coney  Island,  Gravesend  bay,  the  Narrows  and  the  lower  end  of  the  Upper  bay. 

Summary.  In  summarizing  the  observations  made  on  this  trip  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  garbage  was  found  floating  on  the  water  along  the  shores  of  Long  Island  and  New 
Jersey,  and  on  two  lines  nearly  midway  between  these  shores,  about  as  far  as  the  point 
where  the  garbage  is  believed  to  be  dumped.  In  fact  garbage  was  found  floating  on  the 
water  at  every  and  all  points  visited.  In  some  cases  the  fields  were  many  acres  in 
extent,  and  so  thickly  strewn  with  refuse  that  no  square  foot  of  water  could  be  found 
without  some  particle  of  garbage  in  it.  Floating  barrels,  tin  cans,  bottles  and  other 
solid  articles  commonly  mixed  with  city  garbage  were  frequently  seen  where  no  par- 
ticles of  garbage  could  be  found.  In  two  cases  the  surface  currents  were  driving  ref- 
use toward  the  beaches  at  a  rate  of  one-half  a  nautical  mile  per  hour. 

The  amount  of  garbage  found,  its  location,  distribution,  and  to  some  extent,  its 
composition,  made  it  appear  practically  certain  that  the  garbage  found  was  garbage 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          383 

from  New  York  which  had  been  dumped  some  days  previously  at  sea.  Although  it  had 
been  announced  that  a  scow  load  of  garbage  would  be  carried  to  sea  on  August 
18th,  no  trace  of  it  or  of  the  boats  which  were  to  convey  it  could  be  discovered. 

SECTION  III 

INSPECTIONS  BY  THE  LIFE-SAVING  SERVICE  OF  THE  NEW  JERSEY  AND 

LONG  ISLAND  COASTS 

Following  is  the  substance  of  reports  received  from  keepers  of  life-saving  stations 
on  the  New  Jersey  and  Long  Island  coasts  concerning  the  condition  of  the  beaches  with 
respect  to  garbage  washed  up  from  the  sea,  during  the  summer  of  1906,  furnished  by  the 
United  States  Life-Saving  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 

COAST  OF  NEW  JERSEY 

Sandy  HooJc.    Aug.  12-18th,  no  garbage. 

Spermaceti  Cove.  Aug.  9th,  found  about  ten  dead  cats,  some  pineapples,  bread 
and  lemons;  Aug.  10th  and  llth,  same,  nothing  new  noticed;  Aug.  13th,  small  quan- 
tity fruit;  Aug.  15th,  three  dead  cats  and  some  lemons;  Aug.  16th,  dead  chicken  and 
chicken  entrails;  week  19th  to  25th,  garbage  washed  ashore  very  light ;  Friday,  24th, 
two  cats  and  some  fruit. 

Seabriyht.  Aug.  9th,  small  quantities,  principally  burnt  coffee  and  wood;  Aug. 
10th,  large  quantity  of  driftwood;  Aug.  11  to  17th,  no  garbage;  Aug.  18th,  large 
quantity  of  table  refuse  and  dead  animals;  Aug.  19th  to  23rd,  no  garbage;  Aug.  24th 
and  25th,  small  quantities  of  garbage. 

llonmoiiih  Bench.  Aug.  9th,  large  quantity  of  garbage  and  driftwood;  Aug.  10th 
and  llth,  very  little  garbage;  Aug.  12th,  no  garbage;  Aug.  13th  and  14th,  very  little; 
Aug.  loth,  large  quantity  of  driftwood;  Aug.  16th  and  17th,  very  little  garbage;  Aug. 
18th,  small  quantity;  Aug.  19th  to  24th,  very  little;  Aug.  25th,  small  quantity  of  gar- 
bage but  much  driftwood;  27th  and  28th,  very  little  garbage;  29th,  small  lot  of  gar- 
bage, large  quantity  driftwood;  30th,  little  garbage;  31st,  no  garbage. 

Long  Branch.  Aug.  9th,  no  garbage;  10th,  small  lots;  llth  and  12th,  none; 
13th,  small  lots;  14th,  none;  15th,  small  lots;  16th  to  23rd,  no  garbage;  24th,  small 
quantity;  25th,  none. 

Deal.  Aug.  9th  to  12th,  large  quantities  of  garbage,  consisting  of  meats,  grease, 
fruits  of  all  kinds;  13th  to  16th,  wind  off  shore,  so  no  garbage  coming  in;  beach 
cleared  of  old  deposits  by  the  16th;  17th,  wind  shifted  to  light  south  and  southwest; 
nothing  coming  in  up  to  25th;  wind  shifted  to  north  and  northeast. 


384  DATA   COLLECTED 

Shark  River.  Aug.  5th  and  6th,  beach  strewn  with  decayed  fruit  and  vegetables; 
7th,  beach  mostly  clear,  washed  off  on  high  water;  8th,  light  lots  of  garbage  coming 
in;  9th  to  llth,  beach  strewn  with  fruit,  vegetables  and  grease;  12th,  no  more  coining 
in;  13th,  none  coming  in;  deposits  rapidly  being  covered  with  sand  by  heavy  surf; 
14th  to  25th,  none  coming,  beach  clean. 

Spring  Lake.  Aug.  9th  to  llth,  large  quantities  coming  in ;  12th  to  13th,  consid- 
erable garbage  on  beach;  14th  to  16th,  very  little;  17th,  beach  practically  clear;  18th, 
small  lots;  19th  and  20th,  very  little;  21st  to  23rd,  no  garbage  coming  in;  24th  and 
25th,  considerable  drift  on  beach. 

Squan  Beach.  Beach  in  deplorable  condition  since  July  25th,  very  offensive 
odor,  quantities  of  greasy  tallow.  People  living  along  shore  had  to  rake  and  bury  it; 
shoes  covered  with  grease  after  walking  beach;  patrolmen  obliged  to  clean  shoes 
thoroughly  after  each  trip  before  entering  station;  deposits  consist  of  decayed  vege- 
table matter,  green  corn,  onions,  pumpkins,  apples,  bananas  and  pineapples ;  also  bar- 
rels, boxes  and  lumber;  dead  cats,  dogs,  chickens,  decayed  meat  and  "lights"  of 
dead  animals.  It  comes  in  with  northeast  and  east  winds  and  current  running  from 
north.  Aug.  9th  and  10th,  beach  in  bad  condition;  12th  to  15th,  same;  15th,  wind 
southwest  to  east;  quantities  of  grease  and  decayed  vegetables;  17th  to  23rd,  no  drift; 
24th,  wind  northeast  to  east-northeast,  strong;  sticks,  logs,  barrels,  boxes  and  vege- 
tables coming  in;  25th,  no  drift. 

Bayhead.  Week  Aug.  5th  to  llth,  slight  drift,  consisting  of  leaves  and  tops  of 
vegetables;  week  Aug.  12th  to  18th,  some  fish  and  dog  carcasses;  week  19th  to  25th, 
no  garbage. 

Mantoloking.  Aug.  Gth,  very  little  garbage;  7th,  little;  8th  to  llth,  considerable 
driftwood  and  garbage;  some  grease;  12th  to  18th,  very  little  garbage  and  driftwood; 
20th,  some  driftwood;  21st  and  22nd,  none;  23rd  to  25th,  some  driftwood. 

Chadwick.  Aug.  9th,  small  lots  of  garbage,  fruit  and  meat;  10th,  considerable 
driftwood;  llth,  some  wood  and  fruit;  12th,  wood;  13th,  wood  and  apples;  14th  to 
18th,  no  garbage. 

Toms  River.  Aug.  8th  to  21st,  no  garbage;  22nd,  barrels  and  driftwood,  small 
lots;  23rd  to  25th,  same. 

Island  Beach.  Keeper  reports  large  quantities  of  garbage  on  beach,  but  intimates 
that  most  of  it  was  dumped  there  by  local  residents;  some  decayed  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal matter  washed  up  by  sea;  also  fish  thrown  along  beach  by  local  fishermen;  local 
dumping  of  garbage  has  been  stopped. 

Cedar  Creek.    Aug.  10th  to  25th,  clean  beach,  no  garbage. 

Forked  River.     Aug.  5th  to  18th,  no  garbage. 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          385 

Harncr/at.     Aug.  9th  to  25t1i,  no  garbage. 

Loveladics  Island.  Beach  in  good  condition  from  Aug.  1st  to  9th;  10th  and  llth, 
light  drift  of  garbage;  12th  to  18th,  none. 

Harvey  Cedars.     Aug.  8th  to  25th,  beach  clear  of  garbage. 

Ship  Bottom.  Aug.  12th  to  14th,  light  drift  of  vegetables,  apples,  onions  and 
cabbages ;  15th  to  25th,  none. 

Long  Beach.     Aug.  9th,  no  garbage;  10th,  few  pineapples;  llth  to  18th,  none. 

Bonds.    Aug.  9th  to  25th,  no  garbage. 

Little  Egg.    Aug.  1st  to  llth,  no  garbage. 

Little  Beach.    Aug.  llth  to  25th,  no  garbage. 

Brigantinc.     Aug.  llth  to  25th,  no  garbage. 

Atlantic  City.     No  garbage;  city  scavengers  look  after  beach. 

Absecon.    Aug.  6th  to  19th,  no  garbage  noticed. 

Great  Egg.    Aug.  12th  to  18th,  beach  perfectly  clean. 

Ocean  City.  Aug.  5th  to  16th,  no  garbage;  17th  and  18th,  small  quantities;  19th, 
none;  20th,  small  quantity;  21st  to  25th,  none. 

Pecks  Beach.  Aug.  9th,  small  quantities;  10th,  considerable  driftwood;  llth, 
large  quantities  grass,  with  few  decaying  vegetables;  12th  and  13th,  more  grass 
with  occasional  vegetables;  14th,  none;  15th,  little  decaying  matter;  16th,  none;  17th, 
some  little  drift;  18th,  wood,  bottles  and  general  refuse;  19th,  considerable  garbage; 
20th,  little  garbage  coming  in;  23rd,  none;  24th  and  25th,  small  lot  of  refuse  landing. 

Corsons  Inlet.  Aug.  10th  to  17th,  clean  beach ;  18th,  light  miscellaneous  drift, 
evidently  from  garbage  heap;  19th,  same;  20th  to  25th,  clean  beach,  except  for  eel 
grass. 

Sea  Isle  City.    No  garbage  on  beach  Aug.  5th  to  25th. 

Avalon.    No  garbage,  Aug.  5th  to  18th. 

Tathams.  Aug.  8th  to  llth,  no  garbage;  12th  to  18th,  no  report;  19th  to  25th,  no 
garbage. 

Two  Mile  Beach.     Aug.  12th  to  18th,  no  garbage. 

Cold  Spring.     No  garbage  from  Aug.  9th  to  25th. 

Cape  May.    Beach  patrolled  by  this  station  clean. 

COAST  OF  LONG  ISLAND 

Rockaway  Point.    Aug.  1st  to  25th,  no  garbage;  26th  to  Sept.  1,  some  ashes. 

Rockaway.  Aug.  1st  to  18th,  no  garbage;  19th,  few  decayed  lemons;  20th,  little 
garbage,  old;  21st,  considerable,  in  decomposed  condition;  22nd  to  Sept.  2nd,  no  gar- 
bage. 


386  DATA   COLLECTED 

Long  Beach.    Aug.  1st  to  Sept.  2nd,  no  garbage  and  little  driftwood. 

Point  Lookout.    Aug.  6th  to  Sept.  2nd,  no  garbage. 

Short  Beach.   Aug.  12th  to  Sept.  1st,  no  garbage. 

Zachs  Inlet.    Aug.  1st  to  Sept.  3rd,  no  garbage. 

Jones  Beach.  Aug.  1st,  decayed  vegetables  and  driftwood;  2nd  and  3rd,  same; 
4th  to  28th,  no  garbage ;  Aug.  29th  to  Sept.  1st,  decayed  fruit  and  vegetables. 

Gilgo.  Aug.  1st,  fresh  garbage  coming  ashore;  2nd  to  21st,  no  garbage;  Aug. 
22nd,  old  garbage  coining  in;  23rd  to  Sept.  3rd,  no  garbage. 

Oak  Island.    Aug.  1st,  some  old  garbage  coming  in ;  2nd  to  Sept.  1st,  no  garbage. 

Fire  Island.  Aug.  5th  to  19th,  no  garbage  coming  in;  20th,  21st,  some  old  gar- 
bage coming  in;  22nd  to  25th,  no  garbage. 

Point  of  Woods.  Aug.  1st  to  4th,  no  garbage;  5th,  some  old  boards;  6th  to  19th, 
no  garbage;  20th,  some  garbage  coming  in  fresh;  21st,  old  garbage  coming  in;  22nd, 
fresh  garbage  coming  in;  23rd  to  25th,  no  garbage;  26th  to  30th,  no  garbage. 

Lone  Hill.  Aug.  1st  to  20th,  no  garbage;  21st  to  23rd,  small  lots  of  old  garbage 
coming  in ;  24th  to  Sept.  1st,  no  garbage. 

Blue  Point.  Aug.  1st  to  20th,  beach  clear,  no  garbage;  21st,  considerable  refuse, 
consisting  of  decayed  fruits  and  vegetables,  washed  up  by  fresli  southwest  wind,  re- 
maining 22nd  and  23rd;  24th  to  Sept,  2nd,  beach  clear  of  garbage. 

Bellport.    No  garbage;  27th  to  30th,  slight   deposit;   31st   and    Sept,    1st,    beach 

clean. 

Smiths  Point.  Aug.  1st  to  19th,  beach  clear;  20th,  21st  and  24th,  small  lots  of 
decayed  vegetables  and  fruit;  22nd,  23rd  and  25th  to  Sept.  2nd,  no  garbage. 

Forge  River.  Aug.  1st  to  21st,  no  garbage  on  beach;  22nd,  small  quantity  old 
garbage  washed  in;  23rd,  24th,  none;  25th,  very  small  quantity  old  garbage;  26th 
to  Sept.  1,  none. 

Moriches.  Aug.  1st  to  21st,  no  garbage  on  beach;  22ud,  some  decayed  fruit,  long 
time  in  water;  23rd  to  Sept.  3rd,  no  garbage. 

Potunk.  Aug.  1st  to  21st,  no  garbage;  22nd,  a  very  little  garbage,  long  time  in 
water ;  23rd  to  Sept.  3rd,  no  garbage. 

Quogne.  Aug.  1st  to  22nd,  no  garbage;  23rd,  decayed  vegetables,  one  cat,  and  some 
bottles;  24th  to  Sept.  2nd,  no  garbage. 


FOULING  OF  BEACHES— LONG  ISLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY          387 

SECTION    IV 
QUANTITIES  OF  NEW  YORK  GARBAGE  DUMPED  AT  SEA  DURING  JULY 

AND  AUGUST,  1906 

The  number  of  loads  of  garbage  dumped  at  sea,  according  to  records  supplied  by 
the  New  York  Street  Cleaning  Department,  and  the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind  at 
New  York,  according  to  the  records  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  are  given 
in  Table  I.  Until  August  17th  the  garbage  was  dumped  at  a  stake  boat  located  fifteen 
nautical  miles  southeast  by  one-half  south  of  the  Fairway  buoy  at  the  entrance  of 
Gedney  channel.  On  August  17th  this  stake  boat  was  moved  to  a  new  location,  north  by 
one-half  east,  about  seven  and  one-third  miles  from  the  original  position  of  the  stake 
boat.  This  placed  the  stake  boat  about  seventeen  miles  southeast  by  east  of  the  Sandy 
Hook  lightship,  as  logged  by  the  tug  Nichols  on  August  18.  It  was  twenty-two  miles 
to  the  Jersey  shore  and  fifteen  to  Long  Island. 

TABLE  1 

NEW  YORK  GARBAGE  DUMPED  AT  SEA. 


Wind—  Miles  Pe 

r  24  Hours 

Date 

Garbage  in  Cart  Loads 

Direction 

Miles 

July        6,  1900  

1,228 

Northeast 

352 

"          7       

857 

Northeast 

349 

"          g   

North 

176 

"          9       

1.852J 

West 

174 

"         10       

983J 

Northwest 

193 

"         11      

2,069J 

Northeast 

170 

•<         12       

1,265J 

Southeast 

130 

"         13  

746J 

Southeast 

142 

"         14  

1,500 

Northeast 

215 

"         15  

596  i 

West 

137 

"         16  

1,134 

South 

174 

"         17  

1,640 

West 

221 

"        18  

1,810J 

West 

170 

"        19  

1,3911 

Northeast 

176 

"        20  

836 

Southeast 

157 

"        21  

l,300i 

Northwest 

148 

"        22 

1  0331 

South 

142 

"23 

1  47U 

South 

262 

388 


DATA   COLLECTED 
TABLE    I— Continued 


Date 

Garbage  in  Cart  Loads 

Wind—  Miles  Per  24  Hours 

Direction 

Miles 

July      24  

North 
North 
Northeast 
Southeast 
South 
South 
West 
West 
Northeast 
Northeast 
East 
West 
Southwest 
West 
Northeast 
Northeast 
Northeast 
East 
West 
North 
Northeast 
Northwest 
North 
South 
Southeast 
South 
Soutli 
South 
South 
South 
AVest 
Northeast 
East 
Southeast 
Northwest 

244 
248 
268 
144 
214 
258 
296 
128 
231 
351 
221 
163 
138 
209 
143 
170 
225 
171 
174 
197 
260 
252 
205 
131 
136 
136 
172 
234 
180 
163 
193 
396 
338 
239 
276 

"        25  

1,5352 
2,264 

"        26  

"        27  

"        28  

2,592 
363} 
1,0081 
964 
1,4571 
279J 
l,146i 
l,435i 
760J 
3611 
1,577 
476 
1,025} 
1,272 

"        29              

"        30  

"        31       

August    1  

"        2  

"       8.  .......                          

««        4  

"        5  

"        6  

"        7  

"8                  .           

"        9  

"      10  

"       11  

"      12  

1,3911 
5331 
485| 
1,502 

"      13  

"      14  

'<      15  

"      16  

"      17  

571i 
966 
9581 
551} 

6371 
1,9561 

"      18  

"       19  

"      20  

"       21.  .  .          .                       

"       22  

"      23  

"24  

"      25.. 

"      26  

1,3021 
804} 

"      27  

CHAPTER  VII 
BACTERIAL    CONTENT    OF    THE    HARBOR    WATERS 

COLLECTION  AND  EXAMINATION  OF  SAMPLES 

Previous  investigations  had  shown  that  the  numbers  of  bacteria  in  the  harbor 
water  might  serve  as  a  useful  index  of  the  concentration  of  sewage  pollution.  The  an- 
alyses recorded  in  this  chapter  were  made  with  this  fact  in  miud  and  SUOAV  how  the 
quality  of  the  water  varied  in  different  places. 

Collection  of  Samples.  The  samples  of  water  for  the  bacterial  determinations 
were  collected  in  glass  vacuum  tubes.  These  were  lowered  to  the  required  depth  in 
a  weighted  sampling  apparatus  and  the  samples  were  plated  out  at  once  on  the  boat 
which  was  properly  equipped  for  the  purpose. 

Plating  Samples.  The  culture  medium  used  was  10  per  cent,  gelatin,  made  from 
fresh  meat,  with  a  reaction  of  +1.0  per  cent.  Phenolphthalein  was  used  as  an  indi- 
cator. Ten  cubic  centimeters  of  gelatin  were  used  in  pouring.  The  culture  plates 
were  hardened  on  the  slate  shelves  of  a  refrigerator  fitted  up  on  the  boat  for  this 
purpose.  On  reaching  shore  the  plates  were  transferred  to  the  incubator  and  after 
incubation  for  48  hours  at  20°  C.  the  colonies  were  counted. 

Locating  Samples.  The  places  from  which  samples  of  water,  or  of  mud  deposits, 
were  obtained  were  sometimes  located  by  observing  the  distance  from  one  or  more 
points  on  shore,  or  from  fixed  buoys  or  lighthouses,  and  sometimes  by  means  of  compass 
observations  of  the  directions  of  three  or  more  of  these  points. 

The  location  was  determined  in  narrow  streams,  or  when  near  shore  in  other  sec- 
tions, by  estimating  the  distance  from  the  points  on  shore  and  finding  the  directions 
from  these  points  by  the  compass.  When  at  a  long  distance  from  shore,  after  the 
boat  had  anchored  and  had  swung  about  with  the  tide,  angles  were  read  with  a  sex- 
tant to  prominent  points  on  shore  such  as  chimneys,  towers  and  buildings  or  light- 
houses. Three  angles  were  read  in  every  case,  an  effort  being  made  to  get  angles  be- 
tween 20°  and  180°.  The  locations  were  plotted  from  these  readings  on  charts  in  the 
Commission's  office  by  the  use  of  a  three-arm  protractor. 

When  the  samples  were  collected  observations  were  made  of  the  exact  time  of  col- 
lection, of  the  directions  of  the  tidal  currents,  the  depths  of  the  water,  the  depths 
at  which  the  samples  were  taken,  the  temperature  and  specific  gravity  of  the  water  and 
the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind ;  any  fact  of  unusual  interest  was  also  recorded. 

Care  was  taken  to  get  representative  samples  in  each  case;  few  samples  were 
taken  in  slips  and  at  points  near  sewer  outfalls.  In  Gravesend  and  Jamaica  bays, 


390  DATA   COLLECTED 

where  a  special  study  was  made  of  the  conditions    along    the    shores,    the    samples 
taken  near  the  sewer  outlets  were  excluded  in  computing  the  averages. 

Surface  samples  were  collected  one  foot  below  the  surface  and  bottom  samples 
one  foot  above  the  bottom  of  the  water. 

GENERAL  RESULT  OF  EXAMINATIONS 

The  average  numbers  of  bacteria  in  the  water  during  ebb  and  during  flood  tides 
were  determined  for  the  period  from  March  26th  to  October  5th,  1909,  in  the  various 
sections  of  New  York  harbor  from  1,082  analyses.  The  average  numbers  at  the  sur- 
face and  at  the  bottom  during  the  same  period  in  the  various  sections  were  determ- 
ined from  863  analyses. 

Larger  numbers  of  bacteria  were  found  during  ebb  than  during  flood  tides  except 
in  the  case  of  the  East  river  betAveeu  Throgs  Neck  and  Hell  Gate  where  less  polluted 
water  from  Long  Island  Sound  flowed  in  during  ebb  tides.  Higher  numbers  of  bac- 
teria were  found  near  the  surface  than  at  the  bottom.  The  decrease  in  numbers  at 
the  bottom  was  quite  marked,  especially  at  points  where  the  depth  was  very  great, 
as  at  the  Narrows  and  in  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

Maximum  and  Minimum  Counts.  The  smallest  numbers  were  in  samples  taken 
in  the  Atlantic  ocean  off  Long  Branch.  The  smallest  number  of  bacteria  in  any  sam- 
ple was  35  at  a  depth  of  150  feet  in  the  ocean  ten  miles  off  Long  Branch. 

The  next  smallest  numbers  were  found  in  the  water  of  Long  Island  Sound,  in 
which  section  the  average  of  all  samples  was  375. 

The  highest  numbers  were  in  samples  taken  in  the  Passaic  river  at  Newark, 
where  the  average  for  all  samples  was  92,000. 

The  greatest  numbers  in  the  harbor  proper  were  in  samples  taken  in  the  Upper 
bay,  the  lower  parts  of  the  East  and  Hudson  rivers  and  in  the  Harlem  river.  The 
average  for  the  Upper  bay  was  14,500.  The  average  for  the  Harlem  river  was  15,000. 

The  numbers  in  the  Upper  bay  decreased  at  the  Narrows  and  were  decidedly 
smaller  in  the  Lower  bay ;  in  the  ocean  comparatively  few  bacteria  were  found. 

The  numbers  in  the  East  river  Avere  less  in  the  region  just  below  Hell  Gate  and 
were  small  in  the  East  river  between  Hell  Gate  and  Throgs  Neck;  in  Long  Island 
Sound  the  numbers  were  quite  small. 

The  numbers  in  the  Hudson  river  were  much  smaller  in  the  part  above  Spuyten 
Duyvil  than  in  the  portion  to  the  south  thereof. 

The  greatest  numbers  were  in  samples  taken  near  the  sewer  outlets  or  in  badly 
polluted  streams  such  as  the  Passaic  river. 


BACTERIAL    CONTENT   OF    THE    HARBOR   WATERS  391 

Gowanus  canal,  Newtown  creek  and  Wallabout  canal  did  not  receive  much  at- 
tention because  of  their  manifestly  offensive  condition. 

The  Arthur  Kill  showed  quite  low  numbers  of  bacteria  after  the  flow  of  flood 
currents  from  Raritan  bay. 

Jamaica  bay  showed  large  numbers  of  bacteria  along  the  Brooklyn  shore  near 
Second  creek  and  along  the  Arverne  shore. 

In  the  Harlem  river  near  the  East  river  the  numbers  ran  particularly  high,  one 
sample  giving  a  count  of  120,000.  The  numbers  were  lower  as  the  Hudson  river 
was  approached. 

Upper  Bay.  In  the  Upper  bay  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  the  ebb  tide 
was  16,000.  During  flood  tide  there  were  10,000  per  cubic  centimetre.  The  average 
number  at  the  surface  was  22,000;  at  the  bottom  there  were  12,000  per  cubic  centi- 
metres. The  average  number  at  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  14,500  per  cubic  centi- 
metre. 

Hudson  Rico:  In  the  Hudson  river  from  its  mouth  to  Spuyten  Duyvil  the 
average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb  tide  was  7,700  and  during  flood  tide  4,800 
per  cubic  centimetre.  The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  8,200  and  at  the  bot- 
tom 4,600  per  cubic  centimetre.  The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths 
was  (5,000  per  cubic  centimetre. 

In  the  Hudson  river  from  Spuyten  Duyvil  to  the  upper  end  of  Yonkers  the 
average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb  tide  was  6,500.  During  the  flood  tide  there 
were  (i,000  per  cubic  centimetre.  The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  7,500  and  at 
the  bottom  6,000  per  cubic  centimetre.  The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all 
depths  was  5,300  per  cubic  centimetre. 

East  River.  In  the  East  river  from  the  mouth  to  Hell  Gate  the  average  number 
of  bacteria  during  ebb  tide  was  10,000.  During  flood  tide  there  were  5,600  per  cubic 
centimetre.  The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  11,500  and  at  the  bottom  6,100 
per  cubic  centimetre.  The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  8,700  per 
cubic  centimetre. 

In  the  East  river  from  Hell  Gate  to  the  entrance  of  Long  Island  Sound  at 
Throgs  Neck  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb  tide  Avas  1,800.  During  flood 
tide  there  were  4,700  per  cubic  centimetre.  During  ebb  tide  the  currents  in  this  sec- 
tion run  from  Long  Island  Sound  westward  and  during  the  flood  tide  from  Hell 
Gate  toward  the  Sound. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  3,700  and  at  the  bottom  2,700  per  cubic- 
centimetre.  The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  3,400  per  cubic  cen- 
timetre. 


392  DATA   COLLECTED 

Long  Island  Sound.  In  Long  Island  Sound  the  average  number  of  bacteria  dur- 
ing ebb  tide  was  540.  During  flood  tide  the  number  was  255  per  cubic  centimetre. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  950  and  at  the  bottom  370  per  cubic  cen- 
timetre. 

The  average  number  for  all  depths  and  all  tides  was  375  per  cubic  centimetre. 
These  averages  were  based  on  a  series  of  samples  taken  about  every  six  miles  from 
Orient  Point  to  Throgs  Neck  on  a  trip  of  the  Commission's  boat. 

Harlem  Rivet:  In  the  Harlem  river  average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb  tide 
was  16,000.  During  flood  tide  there  were  15,000  per  cubic  centimetre. 

During  ebb  tide  the  currents  in  the  ll'arlciu  river  were  from  the  East  river  toward 
the  Hudson  river  and  during  the  flood  tide  from  the  Hudson  river  toward  the  East 
river. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  23,000  and  at  the  bottom  11,000  per  cubic 
centimetre. 

The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  15,500  per  cubic  centimetre. 

Kill  van  Kull.  In  the  Kill  van  Kull  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb 
tide  was  0,700  and  during  flood  tide  5,400  per  cubic  centimetre. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  7,700  and  at  the  bottom  4,900. 

The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  0,000  per  cubic  centimetre. 

Newark  Bay.  In  Newark  bay  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb  tide 
was  9,000  and  during  flood  tide  G,000  per  cubic  centimetre. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  9,000  and  at  the  bottom  6,700  per  cubic 
centimetre. 

The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  7,400  per  cubic  centi- 
metre. 

Passaiu  River.  In  the  Passaic  river  at  Newark  the  average  number  of  bacteria 
during  ebb  tide  was  141,000.  During  flood  tide  the  number  was  (55,000  per  cubic  cen- 
timetre. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  111,000  and  at  the  bottom  75,000  per  cubic 
centimetre. 

The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  92,000  per  cubic  centimetre. 

Arthur  Kill.  In  the  Arthur  Kill  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  the  ebb 
tide  was  7,400,  and  during  the  flood  tide  after  the  comparatively  unpolluted  water 
from  Earitan  bay  had  entered  the  Kill,  350  per  cubic  centimetre. 


Bacterial  Water  Sampler.     The  neck  of  the  glass  vacuum  tube  was 

broken  off  when  the  apparatus  was  lowered  to  the  depths 

at  which  a  sample  was  to  be  taken 


The  Floating  Laboratory. 


This  boat  was  especially  equipped  for  laboratory  work.      Water  samples  were  plated 
and  dissolved  oxygen  analyses  were  made  on  this  boat 


BACTERIAL   CONTENT   OF   THE   HARBOR   WATERS  393 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  5,400  and  at  the  bottom  4,100  per  cubic 
centimetre. 

The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  4,700  per  cubic  centimetre. 

The  Narrows.  In  the  Narrows  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb  tide 
was  6,700  and  during  flood  tide  2,500  per  cubic  centimetre. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  8,300.  At  the  bottom  the  number  was 
1,900  per  cubic  centimetre. 

The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  4,900  per  cubic  centimetre. 

Gruccucnd  Hay.  In  Gravesend  bay  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  flood 
tide  was  4,500  per  cubic  centimetre.  Too  few  samples  were  taken  during  ebb  tides  to 
yield  a  fair  average. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  4,500  per  cubic  centimetre.  No  bottom 
samples  were  taken  on  account  of  the  shallowness  of  the  bay. 

The  average  number  for  all  samples,  excluding  those  samples  taken  near  sewer 
outlets,  was  4,500  per  cubic  centimetre. 

Lower  Bay.  In  the  Lower  bay  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb  tide 
was  1,400  and  during  flood  tide  1,200  per  cubic  centimetre. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  1,900  and  at  the  bottom  1,100  per  cubic 
centimetre. 

The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  Avas  1,300  per  cubic  centimetre. 

Rockaway  Inlet.  In  Rockaway  inlet  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb 
tide  was  2,900  and  during  flood  tide  1,200  per  cubic  centimetre. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  2,000.    No  deep  samples  were  taken. 

The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  2,000  per  cubic  centimetre. 

Jamaica  Bay.    In  Jamaica  bay  the  average  number  of  bacteria  during  ebb  tide  • 
was  6,600  and  during  flood  tide  the  number  was  3,400  per  cubic  centimetre. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  8,600  and  at  the  bottom  3,800  per  cubic 
centimetre. 

The  average  number  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  was  7,400  per  cubic  centimetre, 
excluding  those  samples  taken  near  sewer  outlets. 

Atlantic  Ocean.  In  the  Atlantic  ocean,  ten  miles  off  Long  Branch,  the  average 
number  of  bacteria  during  flood  tide  was  120  per  cubic  centimetre.  No  samples  were 
taken  during  ebb  tide. 

The  average  number  at  the  surface  was  200  and  at  the  bottom  33  per  cubic  centi- 
metre. 

The  average  number  for  all  the  samples  taken  was  120  per  cubic  centimetre. 


394 


DATA   COLLECTED 


The  average  number  of  bacteria  at  the  surface  and  at  the  bottom  are  shown  in 
Table  I. 

The  average  number  of  bacteria  in  the  ebb  and  flood  tides  are  shown  in  Table  II. 

The  relation  between  average  numbers  of  bacteria  and  the  dissolved  oxygen  con- 
tent of  the  harbor  waters  is  shown  in  Table  III. 


TABLE  I 

AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  BACTERIA  IN  THE  WATER  AT  THE  SURFACE  AND  AT  THE  BOTTOM. 

MARCH  26  TO  OCTOBER  5,  1909 


Location  of  Samples 

Depths 

Surface 

Bottom 

Number  of 
Analyses 

Bacteria 
per  c.  c. 

Number  of 
Analyses 

Bacteria 
per  c.  c. 

Upper  bay  

43 
62 
20 
48 
13 
22 
28 
40 
19 
4 
10 
15 
9 
105 
6 
23 
2 

22,000 
8,200 
7,500 
11,500 
3,700 
950 
23,000 
7,700 
9,000 
111,000 
5,400 
8,300 
4,500 
1,900 
2,000 
8,600 
200 

30 
59 
20 
48 
13 
22 
18 
36 
19 
4 
9 
12 

90 

.  -» 

6 

2 

12,000 
4,600 
6,000 
6,100 
2,700 
370 
11,000 
4,900 
6,700 
75,000 
4,100 
1,900 

1,100 

3,800 
35 

Cast  river  below  Hell  Gate            

Kill  van  Kull               

Newark  bay     

Arthur  Kill                          

Note.  In  figuring  the  above  averages,  all  the  samples  collected  one  foot  under  the  surface  and  those  collected  one  foot  above  the 
bottom  were  included,  except  that  in  the  cases  of  Gravesend  and  Jamaica  bays  those  samples  collected  near  sewer  outlets  were  not 
included.  Those  samples  collected  at  depths  between  the  surface  and  bottom  were  not  included. 


BACTERIAL  CONTENT  OF  THE  HARBOR  WATERS 


395 


TABLE  II 

AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  BACTERIA  IN  THE  WATER  DURING  EBB  AND  FLOOD  TIDES,  MARCH 

26  TO  OCTOBER  5,  1909 


Location  of  Samples 


Tides 


Ebb 


Number  of 
Analyses 


Bacteria 
per  c.  c. 


Flood 


Number  of 
Analyses 


Bacteria 
per  c.  c. 


Upper  bay 73 

Hudson  river,  below  Spuy ten  Duyvil 85 

Hudson  river,  above  Spuy  ten  Duyvil 23 

East  river,  below  Hell  Gate 67 

East  river.  Hell  Gate  to  Long  Island  Sound 15 

Long  Island  Sound 21 

Harlem  river 31 

Kill  van  Kull 63 

Newark  bay 21 

Passaic  river  at  Newark 4 

Arthur  Kill 12 

Narrows 27 

Gravesend  bay 

Lower  bay 119 

Rockaway  inlet 3 

Jamaica  bay 19 

Atlantic  ocean,  ten  miles  off  Long  Branch 


16,000 
7,700 
6,500 

10,000 

1,800 

540 

16,000 
6,700 
9,000 
141,000 
7,400 
6,700 

1,400 
2,900 
6,600 


19 

79 

32 

65 

18 

25 

27 

38 

24 

4 

7 

22 

9 

111 
3 
6 
4 


10,000 
4,800 
6,000 
5,600 
4,700 
255 

15,000 
5,400 
6,000 

65,000 

350 

2,500 

4,500 

1,200 

1,200 

3,400 

120 


Note.    In  figuring  the  above  averages,  all  the  samples  collected  in  the  various  sections  were  Included,  except  that  in  the 
cases  of  Gravesend  and  Jamaica  buys,  those  samples  collected  near  sewer  outlets  were  not  used. 


396 


DATA   COLLECTED 


The  Figures  in  Circles  Show  the  Number  of  Bacteria  per  Cubic  Centimetre  in  the  Water  in  the  Localities 

Indicated  by  Shading 


BACTERIAL   CONTENT   OF   THE    HARBOR    WATERS 


397 


TABLE  III 

AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  BACTERIA  AND  AVERAGE  PER  CENT.  OF  SATURATION  WITH  OXYGEN 
IN  THE  WATER  OF  THE  VARIOUS  SECTIONS  OF  NEW  YORK  HARBOR  FOR  ALL  DEPTHS 
AND  TIDES  FROM  MARCH  2G  TO  OCTOBER  5,  1909 

Averages  of  800  Oxygen  and  1,082  Bacterial  Analyses 


Location  of  Samples 


Number  of  bacteria 
per  c.  c. 


Per  cent,  of  saturation 
with  oxygen 


Upper  bay 

Hudson  river,  below  Spuyten  Duyvil 

Hudson  river,  above  Spuyten  Duyvil 

East  river,  below  Hell  Gate 

East  river,  Hell  Gate  to  L.  I.  Sound 

Long  Island  Sound 

Harlem  river 

Kill  van  Kull 

Newark  bay 

Passaic  river  at  Newark 

Arthur  Kill 

Narrows 

Gravesend  bay 

Lower  bay 

Rockaway  inlet 

Jamaica  bay 

Atlantic  ocean — ten  miles  off  Long  Branch . 


14,500 
6,600 
5,300 
8,700 
3,400 
375 

15,500 
6,600 
7,400 

92,000 
4,700 
4,900 
4,500 
1,300 
2,000 
5,800 
120 


67 
72 
83 
65 
86 
99 
55 
79 
76 
6 
82 
83 
90 
97 
97 
76 
100 


Note.     In  figuring  the  above  averages  all  the  samples  collected  in  the  various  sections  were  included,  except  that  in  the  cases 
of  Gravesend  and  Jamaica  bays  those  samples  collected  near  sewer  outlets  were  not  used. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

EVIDENCE  OF  POLLUTION   OF  HARBOR  WATERS   WITH 

SPECIAL   REFERENCE  TO  THE   EXHAUSTION 

OF  THE   DISSOLVED   OXYGEN 

ANALYTICAL  METHODS 

The  investigations  which  are  described  in  the  following  pages  were  made  to  ascer- 
tain the  extent  of  the  pollution  of  New  York  harbor  and  its  tributary  waters  in  the 
metropolitan  district  as  shown  by  the  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  which  they  con- 
tain as  compared  with  the  normal  amount  which  should  be  present  in  the  absence  of 
decomposing  organic  matter. 

Unpolluted  waters,  both  land  waters  and  sea  waters,  have  power  to  absorb  atmos- 
pheric oxygen,  the  quantities  absorbed  being  dependent  upon  temperature  and  pres- 
sure and  a  number  of  other  conditions,  The  laws  which  govern  these  phenomena  are 
complex,  but  nuich  experimental  study  has  been  given  the  subject  with  the  result  that 
the  rate  of  absorption  and  the  quantities  of  oxygen  which  can  be  held  in  solution 
have  been  determined  for  both  land  and  sea  waters  as  well  as  for  mixtures  of  these 
at  various  temperatures. 

When  decomposing  organic  matter  is  discharged  into  either  land  or  sea  water  a 
certain  amount  of  the  dissolved  oxygen  in  the  water  is  used  up  by  processes  of  nature  in 
converting  these  matters  into  gases  and  mineral  salts,  leaving  the  water,  while  the 
processes  are  going  on,  deficient  in  dissolved  oxygen.  The  amount  of  this  deficiency 
is  a  measure  of  the  activity  of  the  processes  of  decomposition  and  of  the  capacity  of 
the  water  in  question  to  receive  and  oxidize  additional  quantities  of  decomposable 
organic  matter.  When  the  dissolved  oxygen  is  all  consumed  by  processes  of  oxidation 
the  further  addition  of  decomposable  organic  matter  will,  under  most  conditions,  re- 
sult in  putrefaction  and  the  consequent  evolution  of  foul  odors. 

Albert  Levy  Method  Used.  In  considering  tests  for  the  determination  of  the 
oxygen  dissolved  in  the  harbor  waters,  choice  was  made  of  the  Albert  Levy  method. 
This  is  the  process  employed  by  Professors  Letts  and  Adeney  and  described  in  the  fifth 
report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal.  Professors  Letts  and  Adeney 
had  made  a  large  number  of  examinations  of  the  waters  of  tidal  estuaries  on  the 


400  DATA   COLLECTED 

British  coast  and  had  done  a  large  amount  of  work  in  determining  the  capacity  of 
tidal  waters  for  digesting  sewage. 

Testing  of  Method.  Before  putting  the  test  into  execution  it  was  thought  well 
for  the  Commission  to  request  Professor  Floyd  J.  Metzger,  Ph.  D.,  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, to  examine  the  method  and  make  suggestions  which  would  adapt  it  to  the 
Commission's  use.  A  large  number  of  determinations  were  to  be  made  and  the  time 
available  for  each  should  be  as  short  as  was  consistent  with  accuracy.  The  method 
as  reported  by  the  Royal  Commission,  required  a  long  time  for  the  precipitated  oxides 
of  iron  to  dissolve  in  the  acid,  this  process  taking  apparently  about  three  hours.  Ac- 
cordingly, Professor  Metzger  made  some  experiments  to  shorten  this  period  and  in 
March,  1909,  reported  that  he  had  been  successful  in  reducing  the  time  to  five  minutes. 
The  time  required  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  an  analysis  was  about  30  minutes. 

The  Commission  then  proceeded  to  have  the  necessary  apparatus  made.  Through- 
out the  work  the  standard  solutions  were  prepared"  by  Professor  Metzger  and  delivered 
to  the  Commission's  laboratory  for  use. 

The  samples  for  analysis  were  collected  from  one  of  the  Commission's  boats  which 
was  especially  equipped  for  this  purpose.  The  analyses  were  made  on  board  imme- 
diately after  the  sample  was  collected. 

Opinion  of  Professor-  Gill  on  Method.  In  order  to  be  as  certain  as  possible  con- 
cerning the  accuracy  of  the  results,  Professor  Augustus  H.  Gill,  Ph.  D.,  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology,  was  requested  to  examine  the  work  performed  by 
the  Commission  and  express  "an  opinion  concerning  the  accuracy  of  the  results.  Pro- 
fessor Gill  reported  on  November  15,  1909,  that  he  had  carefully  examined  the  method 
for  determining  dissolved  oxygen  used  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission. 
He  said : 

"  The  method  that  I  saw  carried  out  in  your  laboratory  by  Dr.  Parsons 
would  seem  to  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  in  the  point  of  technique,  either  as 
regards  sampling  or  treatment  of  samples  thereafter.  The  results  obtained 
seemed  to  me  to  be  what  might  be  well  expected,  considering  the  extensive  pollu- 
tion of  New  York  Harbor.  While  the  method  followed — Albert  Levy  Method 
— may  on  theoretical  grounds  be  open  to  question  and  possibly  some  determi- 
nations be  now  and  then  affected,  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  work  done  rep- 
resents the  true  condition  of  the  harbor  and  any  determination  affected  would 
not  be  material. 

"  I  have  said  that  the  method  may  be  open  to  question  on  theoretical 
grounds.  They  are  as  follows : 

"  The  method  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  ferrous  hydrate  takes  up  the  dis- 
solved oxygen  from  the  water,  becoming  ferric;  the  amount  of  ferrous  hydrate 
not  so  changed  is  determined  with  potassium  permanganate.  Anything  then, 
which  uses  up  this  permanganate  lowers  the  per  cent,  of  dissolved  oxygen  found. 


L 


Siphon  Water  Collector  for  Dissolved  Oxygen.     A  heavy  piece  of  lead  pipe 

was  used  in  the  construction  of  this  apparatus  in  order  to 

keep  it  plumb  in  strong  currents 


Apparatus  Used  in  Determining  the  Amount  of  Dissolved  Oxygen  in  Water.      Permanent  supports  were  used  on 
the  boat  to  hold  the  separatory  funnels  and  a  large  number  of  analyses  were  made  daily 


EVIDENCE   OF   POLLUTION    OF    HARBOR    WATERS  401 

This  is  corrected  by  a  'blank  test,'  as  it  is  called:  if,  however,  there  are 
pieces  of  solid,  easily  putrescible  matter,  as  for  example,  fecal  matter,  in  the 
sample  in  which  the  oxygen  was  determined  and  uot  in  the  blank,  these  would 
use  up  the  permanganate  and  give  rise  to  low  results  for  the  dissolved  oxygen. 
"  To  ascertain  the  reliability  of  the  Albert  Levy  method  as  well  as  to  disarm 
any  criticism,  I  would  suggest  that  it  be  compared  with  the  Winkler  method  as 
described  in  Richards  &  Woodmaii,  '  Air,  Water  and  Food,'  page  123,  which  I 
have  found  accurate,  and  with  the  results  obtained  by  actually  boiling  out  the 
oxygen  from  the  samples  obtained  and  determining  the  amount  of  oxygen  thus 
extracted  by  processes  of  gas  analyses.  From  the  results  of  this  investigation 
it  can  be  determined  if  any  correction  of  the  results  already  obtained  is  neces- 
sary and  if  it  is  advisable  to  replace  the  Albert  Levy  method  by  the  Winkler." 

In  consequence  of  this  report  Professor  Gill  was  requested  to  compare  the  method 
exactly  as  it  was  employed  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  with  the 
Winkler  method  and  with  the  results  of  gas  analyses  made  after  extracting  the 
oxygen  from  the  samples  by  boiling.  Samples  of  water  were  collected  by  the  Metro- 
politan Commission  and  sent  to  Professor  Gill  in  Boston,  and  Professor  Gill  collected 
samples  himself  and  analyzed  them. 

Professor  Gill's  final  opinion  with  respect  to  this  subject  is  contained  in  a  report, 
dated  March  19,  1910;  the  report  reads  as  follows: 

"  At  your  request  I  have  made  a  careful  study  of  the  Albert  Levy  method 
which  you  employed  for  the  determination  of  oxygen  in  the  waters  of  New  York 
harbor.  The  investigation  was  conducted  with  the  idea  of  determining  in  par- 
ticular the  reliability  of  this  method  when  compared  with  the  results  obtained 
by  the  absolute  method  of  boiling  out  the  oxygen  dissolved  in  the  water,  and 
also  with  the  results  obtained  by  the  Winkler  process.  From  the  results  which 
I  have  obtained  and  from  a  critical  examination  of  the  methods  as  pursued  by 
your  investigators  I  am  convinced  that  the  Levy  method  as  practiced  by  you 
does  give  the  actual  amount  of  oxygen  dissolved  in  the  sea  water.  It  appears 
to  me,  however,  that  the  method  does  not  give  in  the  hands  of  an  unexperienced 
observer  as  concordant  results  as  the  Winkler  method.  However,  when  the  Levy 
method  is  once  mastered  the  results  are  thoroughly  reliable." 

Reagents  Used.  The  reagents  used  in  the  analytical  method  employed  by  the  Com- 
mission for  the  determination  of  dissolved  oxygen*  in  the  harbor  waters  were  as  fol- 
lows : 

Standard  Ferrous  SulpJiate.  This  is  prepared  by  dissolving  144  grams  of 
Kahlbaum's  crystallized  ferrous  sulphate  in  water,  adding  15  cubic  centimetres 
of  II2SO4  and  diluting  the  whole  to  three  litres. 

Standard  Sodium  Carbonate.  Prepared  by  dissolving  30  grams  of  sodium 
carbonate  crystals  in  one  litre  of  water. 

Standard  Sulphuric  Acid.  Prepared  by  mixing  equal  parts  of  concentrated 
H2S04  and  water. 

»  See  5th  Report  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal,  Appendix  VI,  pp.  221-226,  also  Prof.  W.  P.  Mason's  volume  on 
Water  Analysis. 


402  DATA   COLLECTED 

Standard  Potassium  Permanganate.  Prepared  by  dissolving;  25.1  grams  of 
KMnO4  in  water  and  diluting  to  4.5  litres.  To  he  standardized  against  espe- 
cially prepared  Molir's  salt. 

Collection  of  Samples.  Samples  for  examination  were  collected  in  the  following 
manner : 

Water  is  drawn  up  from  the  required  depth  through  a  three-qnarter-inch  wire- 
bound  hose  by  a  suction  pump  operated  by  steam  in  the  boiler  room  of  the  boat.  A 
check  valve  is  placed  at  the  lower  «nd  of  the  rubber  hose  in  the  water  to  prevent 
an  escape  of  water  after  the  suction  is  stopped.  The  water  passes  through  a 
glass  apparatus,  a,  having  a  capacity  of  one  litre,  and  then  into  the  pump,  b.  After 
running  for  a  few  minutes  the  pump  is  stopped.  A  separatory  funnel  is  filled  from  a 
rubber  tube  leading  from  the  opening,  c,  in  the  collecting  flask.  The  stop-cock  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  separatory  funnel  is  opened  slightly  in  order  to  allow  the  funnel  to  fill 
from  the  collecting  flask. 

For  the  collection  of  samples  at  points  where  the  rubber  hose  could  not  be  kept 
plumb,  on  account  of  the  velocity  of  the  currents,  and  for  the  collection  of  deep 
samples  the  apparatus  shown  opposite  page  400  was  used. 

A  piece  of  heavy  lead  pipe,  five  inches  in  diameter  and  12  inches  long,  was  pro- 
vided with  a  wooden  bottom.  Inside  of  this  a  one-gallon  glass  bottle  was  placed  and 
held  by  a  wire  around  the  neck.  The  bottle  had  a  rubber  stopper,  perforated  for  two 
brass  tubes,  one  tube  extending  one  inch  below  the  stopper  and  two  inches  above.  The 
other  tube  extended  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  and  was  connected  at  the  top  with  the 
short  tube  of  the  separatory  funnel  by  heavy  rubber  tubing. 

A  strip  of  wood  one  inch  thick  was  fastened  to  the  side  of  the  lead  pipe  and  to  this 
strip  was  bolted  a  galvanized  iron  can  four  inches  in  diameter  and  ten  inches  high.  In 
this  can  was  placed  the  separatory  funnel,  into  which  the  sample  of  water  was  collected 
and  later  analyzed.  The  separatory  funnel  rested  on  a  wooden  support  or  ring,  fast- 
ened on  the  inside  of  the  can.  The  end  of  the  funnel  emerged  through  a  small  opening 
in  the  cover  of  the  can.  When  this  wooden  cover,  which  worked  on  hinges,  was 
fastened  down  by  the  clamp  at  the  outer  side,  the  funnel  was  held  firmly  in  place. 
The  rubber  stopper  of  the  funnel  was  perforated  by  two  brass  tubes,  one  extending  to 
the  bottom  of  the  funnel  and  one  inch  above  the  stopper,  and  the  other  one  inch  below 
the  stopper  and  connected  above  with  the  gallon  bottle  by  a  heavy  rubber  tubing. 

In  collecting  the  samples  the  apparatus  was  rapidly  lowered  to  the  required  depth 
by  a  one-half-inch  Manila  rope,  marked  off  in  feet.  The  water  entered  through  the  long 
tube  of  the  separatory  funnel  and  flowed  through  the  funnel  into  the  gallon  bottle,  so 
that  when  the  gallon  bottle  was  full,  as  indicated  by  bubbles  of  air  ceasing  to  rise,  the 


KYIDENCE   OF   POLLUTION    OF    HARBOR    WATERS  403 

separatory  fuimel  would  have  been  filled  and  emptied  several  times,  the  fuuiiels  aver- 
aging about  350  cubic  centimetres  in  capacity.  Each  funnel  was  accurately  calibrated. 

Method  of  Making  Test.  The  separatory  funnel,  after  being  completely  filled  with 
(lie  water  and  the  ground  glass  stopper  replaced,  is  set  up  in  a  ring  support  and  the 
contents  immediately  tested.  Six  cubic  centimetres  of  FeSO4  and  four  cubic  centi- 
metres of  Na2CO3  are  first  added,  both  being  delivered  by  a  pipette  near  the  bottom  of 
the  funnel.  The  stopper  is  then  replaced  and  the  contents  are  shaken.  The  dissolved 
oxygen,  in  the  presence  of  the  alkali,  immediately  oxidizes  a  portion  of  the  dissolved 
salt  from  the  ferrous  to  the  ferric  state.  The  ferric  iron  precipitates  and  settles  to  the 
bottom. 

After  a  wait  of  five  minutes  the  funnel  is  inverted  and  ten  cubic  centimetres  of 
standard  ll^SOj  are  introduced  through  the  stem  of  the  funnel,  the  stop-cock  being 
opened.  After  the  acid  has  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  other  contents  the  funnel  is 
allowed  to  stand  until  the  mixture  is  nearly  colorless  (usually  about  five  minutes). 
The  contents  of  the  funnel  are  then  emptied  into  an  Ehrlenmeyer  flask  and  titrated 
with  standard  KMnO4. 

A  blank  sample  which  has  been  collected  iu  a  similar  manner  is  now  analyzed.  In 
tli is  case  the  separatory  funnel  is  filled  as  in  the  previous  test  and  ten  cubic  centi- 
metres of  the  standard  H2SO4  are  added  and  shaken.  The  six  cubic  centimetres  of 
the  standard  FeSO4  and  four  cubic  centimetres  of  the  standard  Na2CO3  are  added  and 
shaken.  The  mixture  is  then  titrated  with  standard  KMnO4.  In  this  case  the  acid 
reaction  prevents  the  dissolved  oxygen  from  oxidizing  any  of  the  ferrous  salt  to  ferric 
with  the  result  that  the  whole  of  the  ferrous  salt  present  is  oxidized  to  the  ferric  con- 
dition by  the  permanganate. 

By  subtracting  the  result  of  titrating  the  first  sample  from  that  of  the  second  the 
amount  of  ferrous  salt  oxidized  by  the  dissolved  oxygen  in  the  water  is  obtained. 

Computing  Results.  Results  are  expressed  in  terms  of  cubic  centimetres  of 
dissolved  oxygen  per  litre  of  water.  Suppose  one  cubic  centimetre  of  permanganate 
equals  1.009  cubic  centimetres  of  oxygen  at  0  degrees  centigrade  and  760  millimetres 
pressure:  The  amount  of  the  difference  between  the  two  titratious  is  multiplied  by 
1.009  and  by  1,000  (i.e.,  1,009)  and  divided  by  the  number  of  cubic  centimetres  of 
water  contained  in  the  funnel. 

Standard  Units.  The  quantity  of  dissolved  oxygen  in  the  different  samples  col- 
lected was  determined  in  terms  of  cubic  centimetres  per  litre  and  the  percentage  of 
saturation  of  each  sample  was  calculated  from  a  diagram  for  sea  and  land  waters, 
issued  by  the  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal  of  Great  Britain,  showing  the  sat- 
uration figures  at  different  temperatures  and  percentages  of  sea-water. 


404  DATA   COLLECTED 

Locating  Sampling  Points.  When  a  sample  was  collected  the  point  of  collection 
was  noted  with  reference  to  points  on  shore,  or  readings  were  made  with  the  sextant  to 
locate  the  exact  position  when  the  collecting  point  was  at  a  distance  from  the  shore. 

At  the  same  time  observations  were  made  of  the  time  of  taking  the  sample,  the 
direction  of  the  tidal  currents,  the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind,  the  depth  of 
the  water,  the  depth  at  which  the  sample  was  taken,  the  temperature  and  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  water  from  which  the  percentage  of  land  water  was  computed. 

The  average  percentage  of  saturation  with  oxygen  and  the  average  number  of 
cubic  centimetres  of  oxygen  per  litre  during  the  period  from  June  1  to  October  5,  1909, 
in  the  various  sections  of  New  York  harbor  were  computed  to  show  the  difference  be- 
tween the  amount  during  ebb  and  flood  tides.  There  were  787  analyses  included  in 
these  averages. 

The  average  percentage  of  saturation  \\'ith  oxygen  and  the  average  number  of 
cubic  centimetres  of  oxygen  per  litre  during  the  same  period  in  the  various  sections 
were  computed  to  show  the  difference  between  the  number  at  the  surface  and  at  the 
bottom.  There  were  722  analyses  included  in  these  averages. 

Tubular  Summary  of  Data.  For  convenience  the  tidal  waters  about  New  York 
were  divided  into  several  separate  sections  and  the  average  percentages  of  saturation 
for  each  section  are  given  in  Tables  II  and  III,  which  contain,  for  the  different  depths 
and  for  the  flood  and  ebb  currents,  the  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  in  cubic  centimetres 
per  litre  and  the  percentage  of  saturation,  with  the  number  of  analyses  upon  which  the 
averages  were  based. 

In  calculating  the  averages  for  any  section  all  the  samples  taken  in  that  section 
were  used,  except  that  in  the  cases  of  Gravesend  and  Jamaica  bays  those  samples  col- 
lected near  sewer  outlets  were  not  used.  Representative  samples  were  taken  at  all 
parts  of  a  section.  Samples  taken  near  shore  were  obtained  outside  the  pierhead  line, 
not  in  the  slips. 

DISSOLVED  OXYGEN  IN  TIIE  WATERS  OF  THE  UPPER  BAY 

Surface  and  Bottom.  The  difference  between  the  amount  of  oxygen  at  the  surface 
and  at  the  bottom  of  the  Upper  bay  was  very  small,  but  there  was  a  decided  difference 
between  the  amount  in  the  samples  taken  during  flood  and  those  taken  during  ebb  cur- 
rents. 

Ebb  and  Flood  Tides.  Taking  an  average  of  all  the  samples  collected  during  the 
flow  of  the  ebb  currents,  the  water  of  the  Upper  bay  showed  a  deficiency  in  oxygen 
amounting  to  36  per  cent.  An  average  of  all  the  samples  taken  during  the  flow  of  the 


EVIDENCE   OF   POLLUTION    OF    HARBOR    WATERS  405 

flood  currents  showed  a  deficiency  of  22  per  cent.  The  waters  of  the  Upper  bay  at  no 
time  averaged  more  than  78  per  cent,  of  the  oxj-gen  which  they  should  have  had  even 
after  receiving  the  large  quantities  of  sea  water  from  the  Lower  bay.  During  the  half 
of  the  21  hours  of  each  day  when  the  Hudson  and  East  rivers  were  emptying  their  con- 
tents into  the  bay,  the  amount  of  oxygen  was  only  64  per  cent,  of  what  it  should  have 
been. 

Local  Deficiencies.  There  was  a  decided  reduction  below  the  average  in  the 
amount  of  oxygen  in  the  water  of  the  bay  opposite  the  outlet  of  Gowauus  canal  and 
near  the  outfall  of  the  large  trunk  sewer  at  the  foot  of  Sixty-fifth  street,  Brooklyn, 
showing  the  effect  of  the  sewage  contamination  at  these  points. 

EAST  UIVER 
(FROM  GOVERNOR'S  ISLAND  TO  HELL  GATE) 

Surface  and  Bottom.  The  difference  between  the  amount  of  oxygen  at  the  surface 
and  at  the  bottom  of  the  East  river  below  Hell  Gate  was  small.  The  surface  samples 
usually  contained  a  slightly  smaller  amount  of  oxygen  than  those  taken  lower  down. 

Ebb  and  Flood  Tides.  An  average  of  all  the  samples  taken  during  the  flood  com- 
pared with  those  taken  during  the  ebb  currents  showed  that  there  was  a  greater  de- 
ficiency in  the  oxygen  of  the  East  river  during  the  ebb  than  during  the  flood.  During 
the  flood  the  water  contained  (it)  per  cent,  while  the  water  flowing  out  toward  the  bay 
contained  only  CO  per  cent,  of  the  oxygen  which  it  should  have  had. 

Local  Deficiencies.  There  was  a  considerable  reduction  below  the  average  in  the 
amount  of  oxygen  in  the  river  at  certain  points,  notably  opposite  the  mouth  of  New- 
town  creek  and  off  Wallabont  bay. 

EAST  RIVER 
(FROM  HELL  GATE  TO  THROGS  NECK) 

Surface  and  Bottom.  The  difference  between  the  amount  of  oxygen  at  the  surface 
and  at  the  bottom  of  the  East  river  above  Hell  Gate  was  very  small. 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides.  The  entrance  of  the  comparatively  unpolluted  water  of 
Long  Island  Sound  into  the  East  river  on  the  ebb  currents  is  shown  by  the  high  aver- 
age percentage  of  oxygen  saturation — 92  per  cent. 

The  water  coming  from  the  lower  section  of  the  East  river  toward  the  Sound  on 
the  flood  currents  contained  80  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  oxygen  which  it  should  have 
had. 


406  DATA   COLLECTED 

HUDSON   KIVER 
(FROM  ITS  MOUTH  TO  SPUYTEN  DUYVIL  CREEK) 

Surface  and  Bottom.  The  difference  between  the  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  at 
the  surface  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  Hudson  river  below  Spuyten  Duyvil  creek  was 
slight.  The  samples  taken  near  the  surface  usually  contained  a  somewhat  smaller 
amount  of  oxygen  than  those  taken  at  the  bottom. 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides.  An  average  of  all  the  samples  taken  during  the  flood 
compared  with  those  taken  during  the  flow  of  the  ebb  currents,  showed  that  there  was  a 
greater  deficiency  iu  the  oxygen  of  the  Hudson  river  below  Spuyten  Duyvil  during  the 
ebb  than  during  the  flood.  During  the  flood  the  water  contained  70  per  cent,  while 
the  water  passing  down  toward  the  bay  contained  only  66  per  cent,  of  the  oxygen  which 
it  should  have  had. 

HUDSON   KIVER 
(FROM  SPUYTEN  DUYVIL  TO  YONKERS) 

Surface  and  Bottom.  In  the  section  of  the  Hudson  above  Spuyten  Duyvil 
there  was  slightly  more  oxygen  at  the  surface  than  at  the  bottom,  possibly  because  the 
more  polluted  sea  water  had  a  tendency  to  remain  at  the  bottom. 

On  Ebb  and  Flowl  Tides.  The  samples  taken  on  the  ebb  current  showed  about  tlio 
same  deficiency  in  oxygen  as  those  taken  on  the  flood,  or  about  16  per  cent. 

The  ebb  currents  carried  much  of  the  Yonkers  sewage  down  the  river  near  the  east- 
ern shore  and  the  path  of  this  sewage  could  be  traced  as  far  down  as  Inwood,  about 
four  miles,  by  the  dissolved  oxygen  tests.  As  some  of  the  samples  taken  on  the  ebb  tide 
were  from  this  polluted  field,  the  average  per  cent,  of  oxygen  saturation  for  this  upper 
section  of  the  Hudson  on  the  ebb  is  probably  a  little  too  low. 

HARLEM    RIVER 

Surface  and  Bottom.  There  was  very  little  difference  between  the  amount  of 
oxygen  at  the  surface  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  Harlem  river  and  the  general  average 
of  oxygen  for  the  flood  tide  agreed  pretty  closely  with  that  for  the  ebb. 

On  Average  of  Tides.  The  average  for  all  tides  and  all  depths  showed  that  the 
oxygen  in  the  Harlem  river  was  nearly  50  per  cent,  exhausted. 

Eastern  End  of  River.  There  was  a  decided  reduction  below  the  average  in  the 
amount  of  oxygen  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  river  between  Hell  Gate  and  the  Third 
Avenue  Bridge.  Here  the  water  often  contained  only  20  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of 
oxygen  which  it  should  have  had. 


EVIDENCE   OF   POLLUTION    OF    HARBOR    WATERS  407 

This  part  of  the  river  does  not  seem  to  be  flushed  out  thoroughly  by  the  flow  from 
the  East  river  on  the  ebb  tide.  In  fact  the  water  contains  more  oxygen,  as  a  rule, 
after  the  flow  of  the  flood  currents  from  the  Hudson. 

The  average  of  a  series  of  samples  showed  a  deficiency  in  oxygen  of  73  per  cent, 
on  the  ebb  tide  and  of  57  per  cent,  on  the  flood. 

KILL  VAN    KULL 

Surface  and  Bottom.  A  comparison  of  the  amount  of  oxygen  at  the  surface  and 
at  the  bottom  of  the  Kill  van  Kull  showed  a  somewhat  larger  amount  at  the  bottom. 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides.  The  amount  of  oxygen  present  in  the  water  during  the 
flow  of  the  flood  currents  was  82  per  cent,  of  what  it  should  have  been,  as  compared 
with  78  per  cent,  on  the  ebb.  The  larger  amount  of  oxygen  at  the  bottom  is  probably 
explained  by  the  less  polluted  and  heavier  sea  water  remaining  at  the  bottom. 

NEWARK  BAY 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides.  The  water  of  Newark  bay  contained  rather  more  oxygen 
on  the  flood  tide,  after  the  water  from  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  the  Arthur  Kill  had 
mixed  with  it,  than  on  the  ebb  when  it  received  the  waters  of  the  very  polluted  Pas- 
saic  river. 

The  water  in  the  bay  is  very  shallow  and  not  much  difference  was  found  'between 
the  amount  of  oxygen  at  the  surface  and  at  the  botom. 

PASSAIC  RIVER 

At  Lower  Limits  of  Xcirark.  The  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  Passaic  river  varied 
greatly  according  to  the  point  where  the  samples  were  taken.  At  a  point  just  below 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  bridge,  near  the  foot  of  New  Jersey  Railroad  avenue,  New- 
ark, the  water  on  one  day  was  found  to  contain  no  oxygen  at  all,  either  during  the  flood 
or  the  ebb  currents.  On  another  day  it  was  90  per  cent,  exhausted  during  the  ebb  and 
80  per  cent,  during  the  flood. 

At  Month.  The  water  at  the  mouth  where  the  river  was  flushed  by  the  flood  cur- 
rents from  Newark  bay  had  a  better  supply  of  oxygen,  so  that  the  average  for  all  the 
samples  taken  showed  that  the  river  had  about  27  per  cent,  of  the  oxygen  which  it 
should  have  had. 

K/fa-ts  of  Water  on  Paints.    The  water  of  the  Passaic  at  Newark  was  black  and 
had  a  strong  odor  of  hydrogen  sulphide.     The  white  paint  on  boats  which  had  tied 
up  here  had  turned  a  dark  gray  or  black,  from  the  formation  of  sulphide  of  lead. 


408  DATA   COLLECTED 

ARTHUR  KILL 

Surface  and  Bottom.  During  the  flood  tide  the  water  from  Raritan  bay  partly 
flushes  out  the  Arthur  Kill  and  no  deficiency  was  found  in  the  oxygon  present  in  the 
water  during  this  period. 

The  influence  of  the  heavier  and  purer  .sea  water  was  also  seen  in  the  higher  per- 
centage of  oxygen  in  the  deep  samples  than  in  tho.se  taken  at  the  surface. 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides.  During  the  flow  of  the  ebb  currents  the  Avater  from 
the  Eahway  river  and  the  polluted  water  from  Newark  bay  and  Kill  van  Kull,  con- 
taining the  Orange  sewage,  which  is  discharged  into  the  Kills  at  Elizabethport, 
entered  the  Arthur  Kill  and  reduced  the  amount  of  oxygen  present  to  73.  per  cent,  of 
what  it  should  have  been. 

THE  NARROWS 

Surface  and  Bottom.  At  the  Narrows  the  samples  of  water  taken  at  the  bottom,  in 
most  cases  at  the  depth  of  60  feet,  contained  less  oxygon  than  those  taken  at  the  sur- 
face. 

On  Ebb  and  Flood  Tides.  The  difference  between  the  water  at  this  point  on  the 
flood  and  ebb  tides  was  very  marked.  The  sea  water  entering  from  the  Lower  bay 
raised  the  percentage  of  oxygen  here,  so  that  it  averaged  92  per  cent,  of  what  it  should 
have  been.  The  polluted  water  from  the  Upper  bay  passing  out  lowered  the  percentage 
of  oxygen,  so  that  the  water  contained  only  74  per  cent,  of  the  amount  which  it  should 
have  had. 

GRAVESEN7D  BAY 

Surface.  Owing  to  the  shallowness  of  Gravesend  bay  none  but  surface  samples 
were  taken.  The  average  of  these  oxygen  figures  showed  a  deficiency  of  10  per  cent. 
Those  samples  taken  near  the  outlet  of  the  effluent  pipe  from  the  Coney  Island  sewage 
disposal  plant  were  not  included  in  the  averages. 

The  average  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  water  during  the  flow  of  the  Hood  currents 
was  85  per  cent,  of  what  should  have  been  present. 

LOWER  BAY 

Surface  and  Bottom.  The  difference  between  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  water 
at  the  surface  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  Lower  bay  was  quite  marked.  The  polluted 
water  from  the  Upper  bay,  of  a  lower  specific  gravity,  had  a  tendency  to  keep  near  the 


EVIDENCE   OF   POLLUTION    OF    1IAK1IOK    WATERS  409 

surface  as  it  passed  into  the  Lower  bay  so  that  while  the  water  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Lower  bay  was  saturated  with  oxygen,  the  water  at  the  surface  had  a  slight  deficiency, 
averaging  about  ten  per  cent. 

Deep  Sample*.  Samples  taken  in  very  deep  spots  in  the  ocean,  in  the  so-called 
mud  gorge,  ten  miles  off  Long  Branch,  were  saturated  witli  oxygen,  while  surface  sam- 
ples taken  at  the  same  points  were  also  found  to  be  saturated. 

SUMMARY 

As  a  rule  there  was  not  much  difference  between  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the 
water  at  the  surface  and  in  that  at  the  bottom.  In  sections  where  the  water  was  badly 
polluted  the  surface  samples  usually  contained  a  slightly  smaller  amount  of  oxygen 
than  did  the  deep  samples,  due,  perhaps,  to  the  presence  of  bacteria  of  decomposition, 
in  the  surface  water,  which  consumed  a  proportionately  larger  amount  of  its  oxygen. 
Often,  too,  the  purer  sea  water,  which  had  a  tendency  to  remain  at  the  bottom  by  reason 
of  its  higher  specific  gravity,  increased  the  quantity  of  dissolved  oxygen  at  the  bottom 
above  that  at  the  surface  by  dilution. 

Where  the  water  was  comparatively  pure  the  very  deep  samples  usually  contained 
a  smaller  amount  of  oxygen  than  those  taken  at  the  surface. 

When  comparatively  unpolluted  water  such  as  that  from  the  Lower  bay  and  the 
Sound  entered  a  polluted  section  of  water  the  percentage  of  oxygen  was  raised  by  the 
dilution. 

When  sewage  or  a  polluted  water  entered  a  comparatively  unpolluted  section  of 
water,  the  percentage  of  oxygen  saturation  was  lowered  by  dilution,  by  the  addition 
of  easily  oxidizable  substances  which  caused  a  more  or  less  rapid  loss  of  its  dissolved 
oxygen  and  by  the  addition  of  organic  constituents  of  sewage,  not  readily  oxidizable, 
which  were  oxidized  by  the  bacteria  present  in  the  water  and  which  indirectly  caused  a 
loss  of  the  dissolved  oxygen. 

The  amount  of  oxygen  was  less  in  the  water  near  shore  than  in  the  water  nearer  the 
middle  of  the  river  or  bay,  and  there  was  a  decided  reduction  below  the  average  amount 
•\\hen  the  outfall  of  a  sewer  was  approached. 


410 


DATA    COLLECTED 


TABLE  I 

VOLUMES  OF  OXYGEN  ABSORBED  FROM  THE  Am  BY  DISTILLED  WATER  AND  BY  SEA  WATER 
AT  DIFFERENT  TEMPERATURES  CENTIGRADE  AND  AT  A  PRESSURE  OF  7(50  M.  M. 

FROM  THE  FIFTH  REPORT  OF  THE  ROYAL  COMMISSION  ON  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL,  VOL.  18,  1908. 


Temperatures  in 
Degrees  Centigrade 

Percentages  of  Distilled  Water  to  Sea  Water 

0 

4 

8 

12 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

52 

l>4 

72 

100 

17 
18 
19 
20 

5  6 

5  6 

5  7 

5  7 

5  8 

5  9 

5  9 

6  0 

6  0 

60 

6  1 

6  2 

6  3 

G  4 

6  5 

6  9 

5.5 

5.5 

5.6 

5.6 

5  7 

5  8 

5  9 

5  9 

5.9 

6  0 

6  0 

6  0 

6.2 

6  3 

G.4 

fi  8 

5  4 

5  4 

5  5 

5  5 

5  6 

5  6 

5  7 

5  8 

5  8 

5  8 

5  9 

6  0 

6  0 

6  2 

6  3 

6  7 

5.3 

5.3 

5.4 

5.4 

5.5 

5.5 

5.6 

5.7 

5.7 

5.8 

5.8 

5.8 

.-,.'.) 

0.0 

6.2 

6.5 

21 

5.2 

5.2 

5.3 

5.3 

5.4 

5.4 

5.5 

5.5 

5.6 

5.6 

5.7 

5.7 

5.8 

6.0 

6.1 

8.4 

22 

5.1 

5.1 

5.2 

5.3 

5.3 

5.4 

5.4 

5.5 

5.5 

5.6 

5.6 

5.6 

5.7 

5.8 

5.9 

6.3 

23 

5.0 

5.0 

5.1 

5.1 

5.2 

5.2 

5.2 

5.3 

5.4 

5.4 

5.6 

5.6 

5.6 

5.8 

5.9 

6.2 

24 

4.9 

4.9 

5.0 

5.0 

5.1 

5.2 

5.2 

5.3 

5.3 

5.4 

5.4 

5.4 

5.5 

5.6 

5.7 

6.1 

25 

4.9 

4.9 

5.0 

5  0 

5.1 

5.1 

5.2 

5.2 

5.2 

5.3 

5.4 

5.4 

5.5 

5.6 

5.7 

6.0 

26 

4.8 

4.9 

4.9 

5.0 

5.0 

5.1 

5.1 

5.2 

5.2 

5.2 

5.3 

5.3 

5.4 

5.5 

5.6 

5.9 

EVIDENCE   OF   POLLUTION    OF    HARBOR    WATERS 


411 


The  Figures  in  Circles  Show  the  Per  Cent,  of  Dissolved  Oxygen  in  the  Waters  in  the  Localities  Shown  by  Shading 


412 


DATA   COLLECTED 


TABLE  II 

AVERAGE  AMOUNT  OF  DISSOLVED  OXYGEN  ix   THE   WATER   DURING    EBP,   AND   FLOOD 

CURRENTS,  JUNE  1  TO  OCTOBER  5,  1909. 


Ti 

des 

Location  of  Samples 

Ebb  Currents 

Flood  Current 

8 

Number  of 
Analyses 

C.  C. 

Per  Litre 

Per  Cent,  of 
Saturation 

Number  of 
Analyses 

C.  C. 

Per  Litre 

Per  Cent,  of 
Saturation 

Unoer  bav.  .  . 

42 

3  60 

64 

24 

4  m 

78 

Hudson  river,  below  Spuyten  Duyvil 
Hudson  river,  above  Spuyten  Duyvil 
East  river,  below  Hell  Gate 

29 
10 

77 

3.67 
5.13 

3  46 

66 
83 
60 

68 
22 
78 

4.63 
5.01 

A     ft1* 

76 
84 
69 

East    river,    Hell    Gate    to    Longl 
Island  Sound  / 

18 

5.38 

92 

21 

4.66 

80 

Long  Island  Sound,  near  Throgs\ 
Neck  / 

3 

5.90 

100 

5 

5.78 

98 

Harlem  river  

30 

3  28 

56 

22 

3  21 

55 

Kill  van  Kull  

40 

4  49 

78 

24 

4  76 

82 

Newark  bay  

12 

4.21 

74 

13 

4  41 

78 

Passaic  river  at  Newark  

4 

0  30 

5 

4 

0  42 

7 

Arthur  Kill  

16 

4.31 

73 

8 

5  61 

100 

Narrows  

17 

4  16 

74 

15 

5  18 

92 

Gravesend  bay  

10 

5  00 

90 

Lower  bay  

59 

5.29 

95 

44 

5  56 

100 

Rockaway  inlet  

6 

5  10 

93 

6 

6  14 

100 

18 

4  06 

73 

11 

4  26 

81 

Atlantic  ocean,  ten  miles  off  Long\ 

4 

6.05 

100 

Gowanus  canal  

2 

0  00 

0 

3 

0  00 

0 

Wallabout  canal  

1 

0.30 

6 

Note.    In  calculating  the  above  averages,  all  the  samples  collected  in  the  various  sections  were  included,  except  that  in  the 
cases  of  Qravesend  and  Jamaica  bays,  those  samples  collected  near  sawer  outlets  were  not  used. 


EVIDENCE   OF   POLLUTION    OF    ITARBOR    WATERS 


413 


TABLE  III 

AVERAGE  AMOUNT  OF  DISSOLVED  OXYGEN  IN  THE  WATER  AT  THE  SURFACE  AND  AT  THE 

BOTTOM,  JUNE  1  TO  OCTOBER  5,  1909. 


Location  of  Samples 


Upper  bay 

Hudson  river,  below  Spuyten  Duyvil 
Hudson  river,  above  Spuyten  Duyvil 

East  river,  below  Hell  Gate 

East  river,  Hell  Gate  to  Long  Island  \ 
Sound ; 

Long  Island  Sound 

Harlem  river 

Kill  van  Kull 

Newark  bay 

Passaic  river  at  Newark 

Arthur  Kill 

Narrows 

Gravesend  bay 

Lower  bay 

Roekaway  inlet 

Jamaica  bay 

Atlantic  ocean,  ten  miles  off  Long\ 
Branch < 

Gowanus  canal 

Newtown  creek 

Wallabout  canal.. . 


Depths 


Number  of 

Analyses 


28 
41 
15 
65 
19 
3 

26 

28 

12 

4 

12 

16 

10 

56 

6 

20 

2 

2 

3 

1 


Surface 


C.  C. 

Per  Litre 


3.76 
4.17 
5.11 
3.63 
5.01 
5.69 
3.21 
4.37 
4.29 
0.33 
4.52 
4.86 
5.00 
5.23 
5.58 
3.96 
6.21 
0.00 
0.00 
0.30 


Per  Cent,  of 
Saturation 


66 
71 
84 
64 
86 
97 
55 
78 
76 
6 

80 

87 

90 

90 

96 

74 

100 

0 

0 

6 


Bottom 


Number  of 
Analyses 


28 
38 
15 
65 
19 

3 
26 
28 
12 

4 
12 
16 

46 
6 
9 
2 


C.  C. 

Per  Litre 


4.15 
4.30 
4.96 
3.83 
4.99 
5.92 
3.28 
4.74 
4.37 
0.40 
4.81 
4.55 

5.61 
5.68 
4.52 
5.89 


Per  Cent,  of 
Saturation 


69 

73 

82 

66 

85 

100 

56 

81 

77 

7 

84 
80 

100 
98 
82 

100 


Note.  In  calculating  the  above  averages,  all  the  samples  collected  one  foot  under  the  surface  and  those  collected  one 
foot  above  the  bottom  were  included  except  that  in  the  cases  of  Gravesend  and  Jamaica  bays  those  samples  collected  near 
sewer  outlets  were  not  used.  Those  samples  collected  at  depths  between  the  surface  and  the  bottom  were  not  Included. 


CHAPTER  IX 

EVIDENCE  OF  POLLUTION   IN  THE   DEPOSITS   ON   THE  BOTTOM 

OF  THE   HARBOR 

METHODS  OF  IDENTIFYING  MATTERS   OF   SEWAGE   ORIGIN 

liactcriaJ  Eridcncc  of  Pollution.  Prior  to  1908  bacterial  and  chemical  analyses  had 
been  made  of  deposits  upon  the  bottom  of  New  York  harbor,  but  the  information  which 
these  examinations  furnished  lacked  definiteness  as  to  the  presence  or  absence  of 
sewage  matter.  The  work  here  described  was  undertaken  in  order  to  make  this  in- 
formation more  definite  and  complete. 

About  700  samples  of  solid  matter  were  examined  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage 
Commission  before  1908  for  the  number  of  bacteria  which  were  contained — the  results 
ranging  from  7,500  to  26,000,000  bacteria  per  gram.  In  one  case  400,000  bacteria 
were  found  in  a  sample  close  to  another  sample  which  contained  19,000,000.  Com- 
paring one  section  with  another,  the  bacteria  in  the  material  at  the  harbor  bottom 
were  numerous  in  the  Upper  bay  and  in  that  section  immediately  west  of  the  Brook- 
lyn shore,  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  they  were  usually  most  numerous  where  the  pol- 
lution was  most  intense.  But  it  was  impossible  to  say  how  many  bacteria  would  have 
been  present  in  the  absence  of  sewage  matters. 

Colon  determinations  to  the  number  of  322  had  been  made  of  material  from  the  bot- 
tom. In  nearly  all  these  cases  the  organism  was  found  according  to  the  presump- 
tive test.  But  this  test  is  no  longer  regarded  as  conclusive,  nor  is  the  presence  of 
colon  bacilli  looked  upon  as  certain  proof  of  the  presence  of  sewage.  There  had  been 
506  samples  of  solid  matter  in  the  harbor  bottom  analyzed  for  loss  on  ignition.  But  this 
test  did  little  to  make  it  plain  whether  the  deposits  were  composed  of  sewage  matters 
or  not.  No  examinations  had  been  made  of  mud  from  the  uncontaminated  places. 

Identification  of  Soap,  Fats  and  Animal  Debris.  In  seeking  more  definite  information 
concerning  the  condition  of  the  harbor  bottom  with  reference  to  pollution  by  sewage, 
the  Metropolitan  Commission  after  1907,  considered  the  impossibility  of  placing  im- 
plicit faith  in  chemical  and  bacterial  analyses  as  ordinarily  made,  and  sought  to  sup- 
plant this  work  by  examinations  which  would  not  be  so  easily  influenced  by  the  pres- 
ence of  such  substances  as  sea  weed,  the  bodies  of  marine  animals  and  other  unwhole- 
some forms  or  remains  of  life.  On  October  7,  1908,  a  letter  was  sent  by  the  Commission 
to  James  EL  Stebbins,  Ph.  D.,  a  well  known  microscopist  and  chemist,  requesting  him 
to  advise  with  the  Commission  as  to  methods  and  analytical  technique.  The  Com- 
mission was  particularly  interested  to  know  whether  it  could  be  made  profitable  to 


416 


DATA   COLLECTED 


i      i 


,v 


The  Shaded  Areas  Indicate  Where  the  Bottom  Mud  was  Found  to  be  Most  Heavily  Polluted  with  Sewage  Solids 


POLLUTION    IN    DEPOSITS  IN  THE  HARBOR  417 

examine  water  and  solid  deposits  from  the  harbor  for  soap  and  grease,  fibres  of  paper 
and  debris  of  animal  origin  peculiar  to  human  occupation.  At  the  same  time  a  num- 
ber of  samples  of  solid  matters  dredged  from  the  harbor  bottom  were  sent  to  Dr. 
Stebbins  for  study. 

Dr.  Stebbins'  reply  was  to  the  effect  that  the  only  manner  of  detecting  small 
quantities  of  soap  or  grease  which  would  be  practicable  to  employ  upon  the  large 
scale  required  in  the  Commission's  work,  would  be  to  first  extract  the  fats  from  the 
sample  with  ether  and  identify  their  presence  under  the  microscope,  then  acidify 
with  hydrochloric  acid  and  extract  the  fatty  residue  with  ether  and  note  the  result 
under  the  microscope.  The  test  could  not  be  made  quantitative  without  involving  a 
regular  chemical  examination,  but  a  fair  idea  of  the  fats  and  fatty  acids  present  could 
be  formed  by  observing  the  quantity  or  residue  left  upon  the  microscopic  slide  after 
evaporation  of  the  ether. 

Microscopic  Examinations.  In  Dr.  Stebbins'  opinion  it  would  not  be  a  difficult 
matter,  after  a  little  practice,  to  identify  the  various  fibres  of  paper,  etc.,  by  means 
of  microscopic  examinations.  Such  debris  as  animal  muscle,  fibres  and  connective 
and  elastic  tissues,  ova  of  animal  parasites  and  hairs  promised  to  furnish  valuable 
diagnostic  factors. 

A  scheme  for  examining  harbor  sediments  was  worked  out  by  Dr.  Stebbins  and 
employed  by  him  for  the  examination  of  a  number  of  samples  of  deposits  which  the 
Commission  collected  especially  for  his  use.  The  method  is  given  here  in  full,  for, 
although  it  was  not  found  feasible  to  employ  it  in  the  large  number  of  routine  exami- 
nations made  necessary  by  the  nature  of  the  Commission's  work,  the  scheme  may  be 
of  service  to  other  investigators. 

Methods  of  Microscopic  Analysis;  First  Operation.  Shake  up  a  small  portion 
of  the  sediment  in  a  test  tube  with  water.  Allow  the  coarser  and  heavier  particles 
to  settle,  and  decant  the  fine  and  light  matter  into  another  test  tube  before  it  has 
time  to  subside.  Examine  a  few  drops  of  the  decanted  liquid  upon  a  slide  micro- 
scopically with  one-half  and  one-eighth  inch  objectives  and  No.  3  ocular. 

If  contamination  by  sewage  is  suspected,  look  for  any  of  the  following:  Ciliated 
infusoria  such  as  paramaeciuin,  trachelocera,  fungous  forms  such  as  mold  hyphae 
Saprolegnia,  Leptothrix,  Beggiatoa  ( Sulphur- forming  organism),  and  miscellaneous 
objects  such  as  starch  grains,  yeast  cells,  pollen,  fibres  of  wood,  paper,  muscle,  elastic 
and  connective  tissue  fibres,  epithelial  cells,  threads  of  silk,  wool,  cotton  and  linen; 
insect  scales,  feather  barbs,  the  eggs  of  certain  parasitic  worms,  such  as  Taenia 
solium,  Ascaris  lumbricoides,  Trichocephalus  dispar,  Uncinaria  americana,  etc.,  seeds 
of  wheat,  oats,  etc. 


418  DATA   COLLECTED 

It  may,  furthermore,  be  well  to  look  for  Euglena  viridis,  which  though  not  regu- 
larly occurring  in  sewage,  nevertheless  feeds  upon  decaying  vegetable  matter,  and 
consequently  may  be  associated  with  it  in  polluted  water  and  its  sediments. 

Second  Operation.  Add  ether  to  the  test  tube  containing  the  light  decanted  mat- 
ter, warm  gently,  shake  up  well,  and  allow  to  settle  into  two  layers.  Evaporate  a 
few  drops  of  the  ethereal  layer  upon  a  slide,  and  note  whether  any  residue  is  left 
upon  the  same.  Any  oily,  semi-solid,  or  solid  residue  remaining  will  represent  neu- 
tral fat  present  in  the  original  river  sediment,  and  according  to  its  nature  it  may  have 
been  derived  from  lard,  butter,  cocoamit  oil,  tallow,  etc.,  and  hence  would  indicate 
contamination  by  organic  animal  or  vegetable  mater,  or  perhaps  both. 

Acidify  the  ethereal  solution  remaining  in  the  test  tube  strongly  with  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Warm  gently,  shake  well,  and  allow  the  mixture  to  separate  into  two 
layers.  Pipette  off  a  few  drops  of  the  ethereal  layer,  place  the  same  upon  a  slide,  and 
allow  to  evaporate  to  dryness,  and  examine  any  residue  remaining  microscopically 
with  one-half  and  one-eighth-inch  objectives,  and  No.  3  ocular. 

If  a  crystalline  or  semi-crystalline  residue  remains  upon  the  slide,  it  is  likely  to 
consist  of  fatty  acids  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  soaps  present  in  the  orig- 
inal river,  or  harbor  sediment. 

Treat  the  residue  upon  the  slide  with  a  few  drops  of  alcohol,  warm  gently,  and 
note  whether  the  residue  dissolves.  If  soluble,  test  the  alcoholic  solution  with  blue 
litmus  paper.  If  the  paper  turns  reddish,  either  while  wet  or  after  the  alcohol  has 
evaporated,  the  presence  of  fatty  acids  is  clearly  indicated.  As  a  further  evidence  of 
their  presence,  allow  the  alcoholic  solution  to  evaporate  upon  the  slide,  and  examine 
the  residue  under  the  microscope,  when  usually  either  a  crystalline,  or  semi-crystal- 
line white,  to  whitish  residue  will  be  left  upon  the  slide.  Occasionally  oily  fatty 
acids  such  as  oleic  acid  may  be  obtained  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soap  from 
which  they  were  derived,  and  in  such  cases  the  residue  will  be  oily  instead  of 
crystalline.  Hence  the  presence  of  fatty  acids  will  clearly  indicate  the  presence  of 
insoluble  soaps  in  the  river  or  harbor  sediment,  and  consequently  contamination  by 
sewage. 

Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  heavier  matter  separated  by  decantation  from  the 
lighter  matter  upon  a  slide,  cover  it  with  a  cover  glass,  and  examine  it  microscop- 
ically for  any  of  the  vegetable  or  animal  matter,  etc.,  previously  alluded  to. 

If  any  of  the  organisms,  fibres,  seeds,  etc.,  previously  mentioned  are  found,  con- 
tamination by  sewage  is  clearly  indicated. 


POLLUTION    IN    DEPOSITS  IN  THE  HARBOR  419 

To  the  test  tube  containing  the  heavy  material  add  ether,  heat  gently  and  shake 
up  well,  and  allow  to  cool,  and  separate  into  two  layers.  Note  whether  the  ethereal 
solution  has  changed  color;  if  it  has,  it  may  contain  neutral  fats. 

Pipette  off  a  few  drops  of  the  ethereal  solution,  place  them  upon  a  slide,  and  ex- 
amine them  under  the  microscope.  If  a  residue  consisting  of  white,  or  slightly  col- 
ored warty  concretions,  nacreous  plates,  or  fern-shaped  crystals,  is  obtained,  neutral 
animal  or  vegetable  fats,  or  both,  are  present,  and  clearly  indicate  contamination 
by  sewage. 

The  heavy  residue  may  also  contain  soaps  which  were  not  entirely  removed  by 
the  first  treatment  by  decautation. 

To  ascertain  whether  soap  is  present,  treat  the  residue  remaining  as  follows: 

Decant  or  pipette  off  the  ethereal  neutral  fat  solution,  add  excess  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  treat  as  in  second  operation.  A  white  or  slightly  colored  crystalline,  or 
semi-crystalline  residue  remaining  would  indicate  fatty  acids  and  hence  soap  in  the 
original  sediment  under  examination. 

A  number  of  samples  were  examined  by  Dr.  Stebbins,  a  statement  of  the  results 
of  which  are  given  below.  The  conclusious  drawn  from  the  examinations  were  ap- 
parently fully  justified  by  other  information  in  possession  of  the  Commission. 

SUMMARY  01-'  RESULTS  OF  MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATIONS  OF  RIVER  AND  HARBOR  SEDI- 
MENTS,, BY  Du.  J.  H.  STEBBINS 

tiuntplc  No.  657,  from  Harlem  River  Between  Third  and  Fourth  Avenues.  Found: 
Much  argillaceous  matter,  and  sand.  A  few  dead  diatoms.  Particles  of  wood,  vege- 
table epidermis,  some  trie-homes,  a  little  muscle  tissue,  two  eggs  of  Taeuia  solium,  a 
few  pollen  grains,  fibres  of  cotton,  wool  and  flax  (toilet  paper),  several  Creuothrix  fila- 
ments, and  some  small  particles  of  mica. 

The  specimen  also  contains  an  appreciable  quantity  of  neutral  fat,  and  fatty 
acids  (soap). 

Conclusions.  This  sample  is  clearly  contaminated  with  fecal  matter,  house  wash- 
ings, etc.,  in  other  words,  sewage. 

Sample  No.  319,  from  Went  Sixty-ninth  Street,  Hudson  Kicer.  Large  Sewer  at 
Sixty-sixth  Street.  Found :  Much  argillaceous  matter,  humus,  numerous  diatoms,  one 
Rhizopod,  spicules,  considerable  vegetable  epidermis,  bast  fibres,  and  fibro-vascular 
bundles,  threads,  a  little  cotton,  wool,  and  linen  fibre  (toilet  paper),  wheat  hairs,  Creno- 
thrix  filaments,  and  considerable  muscle  tissue,  and  fibres  (meat). 

Some  neutral  fat,  and  fatty  acids  (soap)  are  also  present. 

Conclusions.    This  sample  is  markedly  contaminated  with  sewage. 


420  DATA   COLLECTED 

Sample  No.  491,,  from  Wallabout  Canal,  East  River,  With  Sewer  at  Head  of  CanuL 
Found :  Much  argillaceous  matter,  humus,  numerous  diatoms,  some  spicules,  consider- 
able linen,  and  straw  fibre,  vegetable  epidermis,  wheat  hairs,  and  Conferva  filaments, 
the  skeleton  of  a  Crustacean,  probably  Cypris,  or  Daphnia,  a  few  bits  of  thread,  and 
filaments,  considerable  muscle  tissue,  and  fibres  (meat).  Considerable  neutral  fat,  and 
a  small  quantity  of  fatty  acids  (soap). 

Conclusions.    This  sample  is  also  clearly  contaminated  with  sewage. 

Sample  No.  3,  Marked  from  Intersection  of  Center  Line  of  Pier  A  and  Center  Line 
of  Hudson  River.  Considerable  argillaceous  matter,  humus,  moderate  number  of  linen, 
and  straw  fibres,  vegetable  epidermis,  and  other  portions  of  vegetable  matter,  Creno- 
thrix,  a  few  diatoms,  particles  of  shell,  sand,  and  some  muscle  fibre,  and  one  elastic  fibre. 
Small  quantity  of  neutral  and  fatty  acids. 

Conclusions.  This  sample  is  contaminated  with  sewage,  but  to  a  lesser  degree  than 
the  samples  previously  examined. 

Sample  No.  3,  Marked  from  Intersection  of  Center  Line  of  Broad  Street,  East 
River,  and  150  Feet  from  End  of  Pier.  Found :  Meat,  woolen,  and  linen  fibres  are  ab- 
sent, but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sediment  was  found  to  consist  almost  wholly  of  living 
and  dead  algae,  numerous  protozoa,  and  a  few  Crustacea,  as  follows:  Protozoa — Col- 
pidium,  one;  Enchelys,  numerous;  Vorticella,  a  few;  Rotifera,  Asplauchmi,  and  Masti- 
gocera,  a  few;  Crustacea,  Cypris,  and  Bosrnina,  a  few;  Diatoms,  quite  numerous;  Con- 
ferva, Ulothrix,  and  Cladothrix,  quite  plentiful;  Rhizocloniurn  salinum,  abundant;  Uro- 
coccus  hookeranius,  abundant;  Schizonieris  leibleinii,  abundant;  Oogonia  of  Vaucheria 
thurettii,  numerous;  Eudoriua  stagnate,  moderate  number;  Plant  epidermis,  consider- 
able, and  numerous  other  unidentified  algae,  and  several  unidentified  infusoria.  Sand, 
slag,  and  some  argillaceous  matter.  Neutral  fats,  and  fatty  acids  (soap)  present  in 
very  small  quantity. 

Conclusions.  This  sample  seems  to  be  only  slightly  contaminated  with  sewage. 
The  contamination  seems  to  be  more  in  the  nature  of  house  washings,  etc.,  than  fecal 
matter  (absence  of  muscle). 

Water  Sample  No.  3,  Marked  from  Intersection  of  Center  Line  of  Broad  Street 
and  50  Feet  Beyond  End  of  Pier.  Found:  Enchelys,  and  numerous  unidentifiable  in- 
fusoria. Considerable  vegetable  epidermis,  Oogonia  of  Vaucheria  thurettii,  several  Con- 
ferva filaments,  a  few  cotton  and  linen  fibres,  one  trichome,  and  numerous  small  fat 
globules;  a  little  sand,  and  argillaceous  matter,  but  no  fecal  matter  (muscle). 

The  amount  of  sediment  was  so  small  that  no  test  for  the  presence  of  soap  could 
be  made. 


POLLUTION    IN   DEPOSITS  IN  THE  HAKBOR  421 

Conclusion*.  This  sample  does  not  seem  to  be  contaminated  by  fecal  matter,  but 
the  presence  of  the  fat  globules  would  point  to  a  slight  contamination  with  sewage  other 
than  fecal  matter. 

Sain  pie  No.  2,  Marked  from  off  Erie  Basin.  Found:  Numerous  small  worms  re- 
sembling round  worms,  or  Nematodes.  Numerous  diatoms,  Oogonia,  Conferva  fila- 
ments, bits  of  wood,  considerable  plant  epidermis.  Ulothrix,  Botryoeoccus  braunii, 
Schizomeris  leibleiuii,  Enteromorpho  intestinalis,  Grass  glumes,  Urococcus  hooker  - 
anius,  a  little  muscle  tissue  (meat),  a  few  spicules,  and  linen  fibres.  Sand,  argillace- 
ous matter,  bits  of  shell,  humus  considerable,  and  a  few  human  hairs. 

The  sample  also  contains  a  small  quantity  of  neutral  fat,  and  fatty  acids  (soap). 

The  sample  .smells  very  foul,  the  smell  strongly  resembling  carrion. 

Coiiclttxionx.  This  specimen  is  evidently  contaminated  with  fecal,  decaying  animal 
and  vegetable  matter,  wash-water,  etc. 

Sample  No.  2,  Marked  from  Kill  van  Kull.  Found:  A  few  diatoms,  some  plant 
epidermis,  and  bits  of  wood,  Conferva  filaments,  Oogouia,  a  little  muscle  fibre,  spicules, 
and  much  sand  and  argillaceous  matter,  and  humus. 

There  is  also  present  a  small  quantity  of  neutral  fat,  and  a  trace  of  fatty  acids. 

Conclusions.  This  sample  is  somewhat  contaminated  with  sewage,  but  more  par- 
ticularly with  fecal,  and  animal  matter,  than  Avith  soap. 

Sample  No.  2,  Marked  from  Great  Kills.  Found:  Much  sand  and  argillaceous 
matter,  and  humus.  A  few  minute  stems  of  plants,  diatoms,  Conferva  filaments,  plant 
epidermis,  Leptothrix,  grass  glumes,  and  a  few  cotton,  and  linen  fibres. 

Neutral  fats,  and  fatty  acids,  are  absent. 

Conclusions.  From  the  above,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  sample  is  contaminated 
with  sewage. 

The  examination  of  eighteen  other  samples  collected  in  December,  1908,  led  Dr. 
Stebbins  to  modify  his  opinion  as  to  the  importance  of  neutral  fats  as  a  diagnostic 
factor  in  the  examination  of  sediments  for  sewage  matters.  The  later  samples  were 
collected  from  uncontaminated  places  and  upon  examination  showed  no  pollution  with 
fecal  matter,  yet  they  all  contained  neutral  fats  in  some  amount.  From  this  fact  Dr. 
Stebbius  inferred  that  a  very  small  amount  of  neutral  fats  was  a  normal  constituent  of 
all  salt  and  brackish  water  sediments. 

EXAMINATIONS  BY  THE  METROPOLITAN  SEWERAGE  COMMISSION 

Owing  to  uncertainties  connected  with  the  determination  of  fats  and  grease  in  the 
deposits,  and  particularly  in  making  such  tests  quantitative,  the  Commission  decided 


422  DATA   COLLECTED 

to  confine  its  examinations  to  the  microscope.  The  method  employed  was  somewhat 
similar  to  that  reported  in  1883  by  Dr.  H.  J.  Sorby  to  the  British  Royal  Commission 
on  Metropolitan  Sewage  Disposal,  as  a  result  of  an  exhaustive  miscroscopic  study  of 
Thames  river  mud  for  evidence  of  pollution. 

Dr.  Sorby's  method  consisted  in  straining  out  the  suspended  mud  in  a  known 
volume  of  river  water  and  counting  the  number  of  muscle  fibres,  hairs  and  spiral 
vessels.  These  small  particles  he  considered  to  have  come  from  domestic  sewage  or 
street  sweepings.  The  number  which  occurred  in  a  given  volume  of  water  was  taken 
to  indicate  the  degree  of  pollution.  Dr.  Sorby  decided  it  was  useless  to  examine  the 
very  fine  particles,  or  the  coarser  fragments  for  evidence  of  pollution  and  confined  his 
attention  to  the  few  kinds  of  particles  intermediate  in  size,  easily  recognized  and  of 
known  composition. 

Method  of  Examination  Adopted  by  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission.  The 
procedure  adopted  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  of  New  York  consisted 
of  two  parts  : 

(1)  Observation  of  the  color,  odor  and  composition  of  the  sample  when  collected; 
and 

(2)  A  search  for  microscopic  debris  which  had  probably  come  from  sewage. 

Collection  of  Samples.  The  samples  were  collected  from  one  of  the  Commission's 
boats.  An  oyster  boat  with  a  large  roomy  deck,  low  freeboard  and  ample  beam  to  give 
steadiness  having  been  found  especially  suitable  for  this  purpose.  The  samples  were 
collected  in  accordance  with  a  prearranged  scheme  by  which  it  was  intended  to  cover 
practically  the  Avhole  area  of  the  harbor  bottom.  Samples  were  located  by  means  of 
sextant  observations,  upon  previously  established  laud  marks,  or,  where  very  near  the 
shore,  convenient  ranges  were  employed. 

Surface  Samples.  The  mud  samples  from  the  surface  of  the  harbor  bottom  were 
collected  by  means  of  small  iron  dredges,  shaped  like  a  mushroom.  The  dredge  con- 
sisted of  an  iron  rod,  two  feet  three  inches  long,  set  firmly  in  the  apex  of  a  plate-iron 
cone  which  was  six  inches  deep  and  12  inches  across  the  open  base,  shown  opposite  page 


This  mushroom  dredge  was  dragged  over  the  surface  of  the  mud  until  the  cone 
Avas  partly  filled.  It  was  then  raised  and  a  pint  sample  of  mud  was  spooned  out  into 
a  glass  fruit  jar.  Before  washing  the  remaining  mud  out  of  the  dredge,  notes  of  the 
color,  odor  and  composition  of  the  dredged  material  were  made.  Frequently  a  thin, 
light  brown  color  was  observed  overlying  a  dark  brown  or  black  sub-soil,  showing,  as 


POLLUTION    IN    DEPOSITS  IN  THE  IlAltliOB  4L':; 

cxpericiioo  taught,  that  the  surface  of  the  mud  had  been  well  supplied  with  oxygen 
while  the  interior  was  in  a  putrefying  condition. 

Subsurface  Samples.  Subsurface  samples  of  mud  were  obtained  by  a  pipe  mud 
borer.  The  mud  borer  consisted  of  an  iron  half-pipe,  two  inches  in  internal  diameter 
and  11  feet  long.  There  was  a  reducer  at  one  end  into  which  lengths  of  one-inch 
pipe  could  be  screwed  to  serve  as  a  handle. 

Mud  borings  were  obtained  by  pressing  down  on  the  handle  of  the  borer  until  the 
half-pipe  was  thrust  to  the  desired  depth  in  the  mud.  The  borer  was  then  hoisted 
up  aboard  the  ship  from  which  it  was  being  operated  and  samples  of  the  boring 
were  spooned  out  of  the  half-pipe.  It  was  necessary  to  scrape  off  and  discard  the 
outer  layer  of  mud  along  the  entire  length  of  the  mud,  to  prevent  the  contamina- 
tion of  subsurface  mud  with  the  surface  mud,  through  which  it  had  been  withdrawn. 

I' reparation  of  Samples  for  Examination.  The  examination  of  mud  samples  in 
the  laboratory  was  carried  on  as  follows: 

(1)  The  microscopic  particles  or  debris  were  washed  free  from  mud. 

(2)  The  debris  was  placed  in  a  large  petri  dish  over  a  white  porcelain  slab. 

(3)  The  particles  which  seemed  likely  to  prove  of  interest  were  picked  out  and 
identified. 

In  polluted  samples  the  debris  was  generally  so  black  with  ferrous  sulphide  that  it 
was  necessary  to  decolorize  the  particles  in  ten  per  cent  hydrochloric  acid.  Mounts  for 
microscopic  examination  were  made  in  glycerine. 

To  wash  the  debris  free  from  mud  the  analyst  filled  the  glass  jar  containing  the 
mud  samples,  stirred  with  a  glass  rod  and  poured  the  suspended  mud  out  upon  a  per- 
forated porcelain  plate  fitting  snugly  in  an  agateware  fruit-jar  funnel.  The  mud  was 
washed  out  through  the  perforations  and  the  clean  debris  was  washed  off  of  the  plate 
into  a  small  glass  pitcher.  This  process  was  repeated  until  the  required  amount  of 
debris  had  been  obtained.  The  analyst  then  proceeded  to  examine  the  debris  and  write 
out  his  report  before  beginning  a  second  analysis. 

The  porcelain  plate  used  was  two  and  three-fourths  inches  in  diameter,  and  the 
perforations  were  between  one-twentieth  and  one-fortieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Later  faster  progress  was  made  by  washing  out  ten  to  fifteen  samples  in  succession 
and  then  setting  aside  the  washing  apparatus  and  examining  the  debris.  Also,  to  some 
extent,  the  method  of  washing  out  the  sample  was  changed.  The  entire  contents  of  the 
jar  in  which  the  sample  had  been  collected  was  washed  out  upon  a  copper  sieve  with 
meshes  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  apart;  all  but  the  coarsest  particles  of  sand  and 
debris  of  a  size  suitable  for  examination  passing  through.  Then  the  sieve  was  inverted 


DATA   COLLECTED 

over  the  jar  funnel  and  the  debris  washed  into  a  large  glass  pitcher.  By  agitating  the 
pitcher  and  pouring  out  quickly  upon  the  porcelain  plate  the  useful  debris  were  ob- 
tained free  from  mud.  By  this  method  a  sample  could  be  made  ready  for  examination 
in  less  than  eight  minutes.  The  number  of  samples  which  could  be  examined  in  a  day 
by  one  operator  was  23. 

The  debris  selected  for  examination,  if  the  sample  was  from  a  polluted  place,  con- 
tained such  substances  as  bits  of  paper,  glumes,  straw,  small  roots,  animal  hairs,  coal, 
pieces  of  twine,  tufts  of  wool  or  of  cotton.  These  objects  were  transferred  to  a  watch 
crystal  containing  ten  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid.  In  a  short  time  the  objects 
became  clear  enough  to  be  mounted  upon  a  glass  slide  for  identification  by  means  of 
a  microscope.  Glycerine  diluted  with  50  per  cent,  alcohol  was  used  as  a  mounting 
fluid  for  rapid  work,  it  being  found  that  objects  cleared  quickly  in  it.  Clinging  to 
the  microscopic  objects  just  mentioned  were  other  objects  of  much  significance.  Thus, 
muscle  fibres  could  be  found,  bits  of  starch  parenchyma,  fragments  of  seed  coats,  ani- 
mal tissues,  etc. 

Methods  of  Examination.  The  identification  of  the  debris  required  less  and  less 
use  of  the  microscope,  as  the  microscopic  appearance  of  the  particles  of  diagnostic 
value  became  more  and  more  familiar,  but  in  practically  every  case  the  diagnosis  of 
pollution  was  supplemented  by  a  microscopic  examination.  The  microscope  used  was 
a  Spencer  with  a  one  and  one-quarter  inch  eye  piece  and  three  objectives  of  one-sixth, 
one-third  and  two-thirds  focal  length,  giving  magnifying  powers  of  530,  250  and  118 
diameters  respectively. 

A  dozen  permanent  mounts  of  debris  from  various  parts  of  the  harbor  were  made 
for  study  and  comparison.  Study  was  also  made  of  a  collection  of  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal fibres,  debris  from  feces  and  manure  and  city  sewage. 

The  objects  found,  together  with  the  data  which  were  collected  when  the  samples 
were  gathered  and  observations  made  during  the  washing  process,  constituted  the 
basis  for  a  conclusion  as  to  the  pollution  of  a  sample  When,  as  a  result  of  the 
straining,  no  debris  was  found,  and  if  the  sample  looked  clean  when  collected  and 
did  not  become  foul  before  examination,  it  was  considered  to  be  an  unpolluted 
sample.  Whether  pollution  could  be  detected  by  other  methods  such  as  chemical  or 
bacterial  tests  was  not  considered  in  drawing  a  conclusion. 

Evidence  of  Pollution.  The  most  persistent  evidences  of  pollution  were  bits  of 
paper  and  glumes.  These  came  to  be  regarded  as  prima  facie  evidence  of  pollution. 
They  were  almost  invariably  associated  with  polluted  samples  and  absent  from  the 
samples  which  were  from  their  evidence  judged  to  be  unpolluted.  In  the  samples  com- 
ing from  the  region  of  a  sewer  outfall,  or  where  sewage  debris  tended  to  collect  in 


Ooze  Collector.     The  escape  of  soft  material  is  prevented  by  valves  in  top  and  bottom 


Dredge  Used  to  Obtain  Samples  of  Harbor  Bottom  for  Analysis 


POLLUTION    IN   DEPOSITS  IN  THE  HAKBOK  425 

quantity,  the  presence  of  small  seeds  was  expected.  Small  roots  and  root  fragments 
were  to  be  found  in  most  samples.  Starch  parenchyma  came,  as  a  rule,  from  plant 
organs,  such  as  fleshy  roots,  stems,  seeds,  fruits,  etc.  It  was  taken  to  indicate  garbage 
or  undigested  plant  substances  and  food. 

In  some  samples  what  was  termed  natural  debris  was  abundant.  This  represents 
the  remains  of  various  plant  organs,  such  as  fragments  of  roots,  stems,  leaves,  bark, 
which  come  from  vegetation  growing  perhaps  near  where  these  samples  were  col- 
lected. 

The  presence  or  absence  of  other  indications  of  pollution  helped  the  decision  as 
to  whether  the  debris  was  natural  or  not.  The  location  of  the  sample  and  observations 
taken  at  the  time  of  collection  were  all  a  part  of  the  evidence  which  was  weighed  in 
coming  to  a  conclusion  as  to  the  pollution  of  the  mud. 

General  Condition  of  Harlot-  Bottom.  The  mud  examinations  made,  of  which 
there  were  altogether  1,100,  showed  that  a  large  part  of  the  bottom  of  New  York  harbor 
was  polluted  with  deposits  of  solid  matter  from  sewage.  The  bottom  of  the  Upper 
bay  was  generally  polluted,  although  the  Jersey  flats  west  of  a  line  from  Constable 
Hook  to  Black  Tom  Island  were  found  to  be  singularly  free  from  sewage  deposits. 
The  bottom  near  Manhattan  Island,  near  the  Jersey  shore  opposite  Manhattan,  and 
the  bottom  near  the  Long  Island  shore  in  the  East  river,  were  polluted  almost  every- 
where, at  least  to  the  pierhead  line. 

Midstream  in  the  Hudson  and  East  rivers  the  bottom  was  fairly  free  from  de- 
posits of  sewage  solids,  and  was  generally  so  hard  that  the  samples  could  be  obtained 
only  with  difficulty.  The  Lower  bay  was  polluted,  particularly  iu  the  principal  ship 
channels.  Frequent  foul  deposits  were  found  in  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  in  the  Newark 
bay,  especially  near  Elizabethport  and  Newark.  The  deepest  deposits  were  found  at 
the  pierhead  line  off  Elizabethport,  Port  Richmond,  Hoboken  and  at  the  mouth  of 
(jowanus  canal. 


CHAPTER   X 

DIFFUSION   AND   DIGESTION   OF   SEWAGE   IN 
NEW    YORK    HARBOR 

SECTION  I 

Freedom  from  evil  consequences  attending  the  discharge  of  sewage  and  other 
wastes  into  New  York  harbor  depends  upon  the  bodily  transportation  of  the  refuse 
matters  from  the  harbor  to  sea  by  means  of  tidal  currents  and  the  assimilation  of 
the  remainder  by  the  water  itself.  It  has  been  found  that,  owing  to  a  backward  and 
forward  oscillation  of  the  tidal  currents  the  sewage  is  not  carried  promptly  to  sea, 
and  it  is  evident  that  the  ultimate  disposal  of  the  impurities  must  depend  largely 
upon  the  phenomenon  of  assimilation. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  POLLUTING  WASTES 

The  term  sewage  is  used  in  this  chapter  to  mean  the  wastes  which  flow  from  dwell- 
ing houses,  factories  and  streets  through  the  municipal  drainage  systems  of  New  York 
and  neighboring  municipalities. 

In  a  general  way,  sewage  may  be  considered  to  contain  about  998  parts  of  water 
and  two  parts  of  foreign  matter;  the  last  being  about  equally  divided  between  animal 
and  vegetable  refuse.  Sewage  contains,  beside  human  feces,  numberless  solid  and  liquid 
wastes  of  human  and  animal  origin.  Among  the  visible  ingredients  are  garbage, 
matches,  corks,  bits  of  paper  and  cloth,  and  particles  of  human  excrement. 

Quantity  of  Fecal  Matter  Produced.  The  quantity  of  solid  excrement  produced 
by  an  average  human  adult  has  been  taken  by  Roechling  ("Passage  of  Excreta 
Through  House  Drains,"  Journal  of  tlic  Royal  Sanitary  Institute,  July,  1909,  p.  216) 
to  be  one-quarter  of  a  pound  for  each  discharge.  The  specific  gravity  of  feces  this 
author  takes  at  1.0(57,  and  from  this  he  estimates  that  the  bulk  of  a  human  discharge 
is  about  0.0234  imperial  gallons.  This  is  diluted  with  from  100  gallons  to  200  gallons 


428  DATA   COLLECTED 

of  water.  Estimating  the  present  population  of  New  York  at  4,500,000  people  there 
is  discharged  every  day  about  560  tons  of  fecal  matter.  To  transport  this  material 
away  by  rail  would  require  a  trainload  of  about  28  ordinary  freight  cars. 

Sewage  is  never  constant  in  quality  or  quantity.  The  sewage  from  a  residence 
section  differs  from  that  from  a  manufacturing  district.  The  sewage  produced  in  any 
locality  varies  both  in  quality  and  quantity  at  different  hours  of  the  day,  different  sea- 
sons of  the  year  and  with  the  weather.  Being  of  such  changing  composition  it  is 
obviously  impossible  to  give  figures  which  will  carry  an  exact  idea  of  the  chemical 
or  physical  properties  of  the  sewage  of  New  York  and  its  neighboring  municipalities. 
A  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  the  sewage  can  be  had  from  figures  which 
have  been  compiled  for  other  cities. 

Composition  of  Sewage.  Winslow  &  Phelps1  consider  that  800  parts  per  million 
of  total  solids  is  a  liberal  figure  for  American  cities  and  is  exceeded  by  few.  These 
authors  state  that,  of  the  total  solids,  it  may  be  said  roughly  that  from  60  per  cent, 
to  70  per  cent,  are  in  solution  either  liquid  or  colloidal,  the  remainder  being  insoluble 
matter  in  suspension.  As  to  the  nature  of  the  solids,  about  one-half  is  matter  which 
can  be  driven  off  by  ignition  in  the  laboratory,  and  is  consequently  assumed  to  be 
chiefly  organic  matter.  The  remaining  non-volatile  residue  is  mineral  matter. 

About  50  per  cent,  of  the  organic  solid  matter  in  sewage  is  dissolved  and  the  re- 
mainder is  held  in  suspension.  Of  the  mineral  solids  in  sewage  75  per  cent,  are  present 
in  a  dissolved  state.  In  a  sewage  containing  total  solids  to  the  extent  of  about  800  parts 
per  million,  Winslow  and  Phelps  estimate  that  500  parts  per  million  of  solids  are  in 
solution  and  300  parts  are  in  suspension.  Of  the  organic  solids,  amounting  to  400 
parts  per  million,  200  parts  are  in  solution  and  200  parts  in  suspension. 

Of  the  organic  matters  present,  either  in  solid  or  liquid  state,  150  parts  per 
million  are  nitrogenous  and  250  parts  are  not  nitrogenous. 

The  total  carbon  amounts  to  200  parts,  the  total  nitrogen  to  15  parts,  and  the 
fats,  etc.,  to  50  parts  per  million.  This  sewage  is  supposed  to  represent  the  liquid 
wastes  of  a  population  which  uses  an  average  of  100  gallons  of  water  per  capita  per 
24  hours. 

Composition  of  New  York  Sewage.  The  composition  of  New  York's  sewage  is 
shown  by  Table  I  which  has  been  made  up  by  assuming  New  York's  water  consump- 
tion at  120  gallons  per  capita  per  day  and  prorating  on  this  basis  the  various  figures 
given  by  Winslow  and  Phelps  above  mentioned. 


i" Investigations  of  the  Purification  of  Boston  Sewage,"  United  States  Geological  Survey  Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Paper 
No.  185,  p.  13. 


DIFFUSION    AND    DIGESTION    OF    SEWAGE 


429 


TABLE  I 

COMPOSITION  OF  NEW  YORK  SEWAGE 
(Parts  per  Million) 


Determination 

Total 

In  solution 

In  suspension 

670 

420 

250 

330 

250 

80 

340 

170 

170 

120 

210 

Fata  etc                              

42 

170 

12 

Weight  and  Bulk  of  Sewage  Solids.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  composition  of 
the  sewage  which  is  discharged  into  New  York  harbor  should  be  accurately  known  in 
order  to  form  a  conception  of  the  burden  of  pollution  which  is  put  upon  these  waters. 
The  aggregate  quantity  of  the  impurities  constitutes  the  chief  matter  of  interest. 

The  quantity  of  sewage  impurities  can  be  estimated  in  several  ways.  Accord- 
ing to  figures  brought  together  by  George  W.  Fuller,  before  the  International  Engi- 
neering Congress  held  at  St.  Louis,  1905,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  LIX,  p.  ICG, 
the  average  result  of  analyses  of  the  sewage  of  ten  cities  for  which  figures  are  avail- 
able indicates  that  the  impurities  are  equivalent  to  42.3  tons  of  dry  solid  material  per 
year  for  every  1,000  inhabitants.  Winslow  and  Phelps's  figures  prorated  for  New  York 
conditions  of  120  gallons  per  capita  per  day  and  reduced  to  Mr.  Fuller's  basis  represent 
4G  tons  of  dry  solid  material  per  year  per  1,000  inhabitants. 

The  1905  population  in  the  metropolitan  district  was  found  by  census  to  be  4,128,- 
39G  for  New  York  and  1,203,387  for  New  Jersey.  According  to  the  estimates  of  this 
Commission  the  total  number  in  1910  is  6,150,000.  Assuming  90  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation is  connected  with  the  sewers,  the  total  number  of  persons  whose  sewage  enters 
the  harbor  or  its  tributaries  is  5,540,000.  The  aggregate  quantity  of  sewage  material 
discharged  per  year  is  equivalent  to  255,000  tons.  About  one-half  of  this  is  capable  of 
putrefaction  or  already  advanced  to  some  extent  toward  that  condition. 

One  ton  of  dry  suspended  matter  is  equivalent  to  about  50  tons  or  about  55  cubic 
yards  of  wet  sludge.  On  this  basis  the  population  of  the  metropolitan  district  empties 


4.30  DATA   COLLECTED 

into  the  harbor  each  year  the  equivalent  of  12,800,000  tons  of  sludge,  having  a  bulk 
of  14,000,000  cubic  yards.  The  area  of  the  various  tidal  waters  in  the  vicinity  of  New 
York  above  the  Narrows  is  about  50  square  miles.  The  sludge  formed  each  year  if 
spread  out  over  this  area  would  cause  a  deposit  of  about  three  and  one-half  inches. 

The  suspended  matters  in  sewage  consist  of  bits  of  feoes,  toilet  paper,  news- 
paper, coagulated  soap,  street  wastes,  kitchen  refuse,  floor  sweepings,  etc. 

Feces,  as  ordinarily  discharged  contain  about  35  grams,  or  .077  pound,  per  per- 
son per  day  of  matter  which  will  remain  suspended  in  sewage.  This  amounts  to  14 
tons  per  1,000  persons  per  year. 

Toilet  and  newspaper  entering  the  sewers  may  be  estimated  at  8  tons  per  1,000  in- 
habitants  per  year. 

Each  person  may  be  assumed  to  use  .01  pound  of  soap  per  day  and  in  doing  so  to 
remove  at  least  four  times  this  amount  of  suspended  matter  with  grease  and  other  ma- 
terial. On  this  basis  about  11  tons  of  suspended  matter  are  produced  per  1,000  per- 
sons per  year  and  emptied  into  the  sewers.  i 

The  street  wastes  which  enter  the  sewers,  consist  of  organic  and  inorganic  dirt 
derived  largely  from  feces  and  urine  and  an  almost  infinite  number  of  comminuted 
solid  matters.  Table  II  shows  the  amounts  of  these  matters  which  may  be  estimated 
to  enter  the  waters  of  New  York  harbor  through  the  sewers. 

TABLE   II 

ESTIMATES  OF  THE  QUANTITIES  OF  STREET  WASTES  WHICH  ENTER  NEW  YORK  UARBOR 
ANNUALLY  FROM  THE  METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT 


Material 


Inorganic  street  dirt. 
Organic  street  dirt. . . 


Total  . 


Tons 


18,300 
26,200 


44,500 


Prorating  the  above  amount  of  street  dirt  among  the  5,540,000  inhabitants  in  the 
metropolitan  district  assumed  to  be  connected  with  the  sewers,  there  are  obtained  8.3 
tons  per  1,000  persons  annually.  Table  III  summarizes  these  figures. 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE 


431 


TABLE  III 

SUSPENDED  SOLIDS  IN  SEWAGE 


Material 

Tons  Per  1,000  Inhab- 
itants Annually 

Tons  Entering  New 
York  Harbor  Annually 

Feces  

14 

77,600 

Toilet  paper  and  newspaper    

8 

44,300 

11 

60,900 

Street  wastes                        .        ...        

8 

44,300 

4 

22,200 

Total  

45 

249,300 

Appearance  of  Sewage.  When  a  sample  of  sewage  is  taken  from  a  New  York 
sewer  and  put  into  a  clear  bottle,  the  sewage  has  a  dirty  gray  color,  with  an  unpleas- 
ant, rather  musty  odor.  It  contains  small  pieces  of  newspaper  and  toilet  paper  and 
finer  particles  of  suspended  matter  ranging-  in  size  much  as  do  the  grains  of  ordinary 
building  sand.  Most  of  the  particles  will  pass  through  a  screen  having  a  mesh  of  one- 
eightli  of  au  inch,  the  largest  particles  at  the  surface  being  excluded.  The  small  solid 
particles  are  composed  of  fecal  matter  and  paper  broken  up  by  friction  within  the 
walls  of  the  sewers  and  small  pieces  of  h'bre,  cloth,  a  few  glumes  and  mineral  detritus. 

Upon  standing,  many  of  the  particles  settle  out,  causing  a  dirty,  grayish,  slimy 
sludge  to  accumulate  upon  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  After  all  the  particles  have  set- 
tled out,  the  liquid  which  remains  in  the  bottle  looks  like  water  which  has  been 
used  for  washing  where  a  good  deal  of  soap  has  been  employed.  If  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  few  hours  at  ordinary  summer  temperature,  the  sewage  becomes  putrfd. 

If  greatly  diluted  or  put  upon  a  sufficient  area  of  land  sewage  does  not  putrify 
nor  give  off  offensive  odors.  In  either  case  the  decomposable  organic  substances  are 
gradually  converted  into  harmless  and  inoffensive  compounds.  The  offensive  odors  of 
putrefaction  are  produced  only  when  the  natural  purifying  agencies  are  overtaxed. 
All  methods  of  purifying  sewage  aim  to  resolve  the  substances  which  are  capable  of 
putrefaction  into  such  shape  that  they  may  be  dealt  with  separately,  under  condi- 
tions which  are  within  control. 

It  is  popularly  supposed  that  the  presence  of  human  excrement  forms  a  prominent 
ingredient  of  sewage,  but  this  is  not  the  case.  It  is  a  subject  of  frequent  remark 
among  visitors  to  sewage  disposal  works  that  comparatively  little  human  excrement 
is  visible.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  particles  of  solid  excrement  large  enough  to  be 


432  DATA   COLLECTED 

easily  distinguished  are  broken  up  in  passing  through  the  plumbing  of  the  houses  and 
the  sewers  and  diluted  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  no  longer  recognizable. 

The  Bacteria  in  Seitxige.  Sewage  contains  large  numbers  of  bacteria.  One  of 
the  principal  sources  of  these  germs  is  the  excreta  of  human  origin  which  the  sewage 
contains.  Saprophytic  germs,  that  is  micro-organisms  concerned  in  the  decomposi- 
tion of  organic  wastes,  are  also  very  numerous.  The  number  found  in  one  cubic  cen- 
timetre of  sewage  averages  from  a  few  hundred  thousand  to  many  millions. 

As  pointed  out  by  Friedenwald  &  Leitz,1  the  germs  contained  in  the  human  intestine 
are  of  comparatively  few  species.  Strasburger2  found  that  the  total  numbers  of  bac- 
teria produced  by  a  normal  person  on  an  average  diet  was  one  thousand  million  per 
day.  One-third  of  the  dry  substance  of  feces  is  bacteria.  On  this  basis  the  number 
of  bacteria  produced  each  day  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  metropolitan  district  would 
be  about  six  thousand  million  million. 


SECTION  II 
THE  SOLIDS  OF  SEWAGE 

The  solid  matters  which  are  carried  by  the  sewage  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes:  First,  the  solids  which  sink  soon  after  the  sewage  is  discharged  into  the  har- 
bor; Second,  those  -which  continue  to  float  for  some  time  on  the  surface  of  the  water; 
and,  Third,  those  which  are  long  carried  in  suspension  in  the  body  of  the  tidal 
streams. 

It  is  evident  that  particles  do  not  always  remain  in  one  or  another  of  these  divi- 
sions. Many  which  at  first  float  gradually  become  broken  up  or  watersoaked  and  sink 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  thus  pass  from  the  second  to  the  first  division  or 
to  the  third. 

In  the  third  class  are  the  colloids  and  finely  divided  particles  of  suspended  mat- 
ters. The  colloids  may  be  precipitated  by  sea  water.  When  allowed  to  settle 
from  sewage  the  precipitated  colloids  and  solid  matters  form  sludge  or,  as  usually 
termed  in  the  investigations  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission,  black  mud. 

Accumulations  of  sewage  deposits  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  handle  except  by 
pumping.  When  raised  in  the  bucket  of  a  dredging  machine  much  of  it  flows  back  into 
the  water  from  which  it  was  taken.  The  United  States  Government  in  dredging  Am- 
brose channel,  now  the  principal  entrance  to  New  York  harbor  from  the  sea,  made 


'  "  Bacterial  Content  of  Feces,"  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  November,  1909,  p.  653. 
'Zelt.  f.  Klin.  Med.,  1902,  Band  XLIV,  S.  413. 


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DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  433 

use  of  suction  dredges  and  pumped  large  quantities  of  sludge  which  had  accumulated 
there,  into  seagoing  vessels  Avhich  transported  the  black  and  often  offensive  mud  to 
the  open  ocean. 

THE  SOLIDS  WHICH  SINK 

The  sewage  particles  Avhich  sink  as  soon  as  the  sewage  is  discharged  into  the 
harbor  water  find  a  lodgment  on  the  bottom  which  is.  permanent  or  temporary  ac- 
cording to  a  number  of  circumstances.  Among  these  circumstances  the  weight  of  the 
particles,  the  velocity  of  the  tidal  current  into  which  they  are  discharged  and  the 
smoothness  or  roughness  of  the  bottom  are  the  most  important  factors. 

Extent  of  Bottom  Pollution.  Analyses  which  the  Metropolitan  Com- 
mission has  made  of  New  York  harbor  have  shown  that  deposits  of  sewage  solids 
exist  not  only  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  sewer  outfalls  but  at  considerable 
distances  from  the  sources  of  contamination  in  New  York  harbor.  The  bottom  of  the 
inner  harbor  is,  for  the  most  part,  covered  wdth  a  slimy,  black,  offensive  mixture  of 
detritus  in  which  sewage  solids  are  a  prominent  ingredient. 

The  only  parts  of  the  harbor  which  are  not  contaminated  by  sewage  sludge  are 
those  where  the  tidal  currents  are  too  swift  to  permit  deposits  of  any  sort  to  form. 
Most  of  the  bottom  of  the  Lower  bay,  the  upper  Hudson  ami  the  Long  Island  Sound 
approaches  to  New  York  are  covered  with  sand,  silt  and  unpolluted  mud;  the  inves- 
tigations upon  which  these  statements  are  made  have  been  extensive.  Over  1,500 
samples  have  been  collected  from  the  bottom  and  carefully  analyzed  to  determine  the 
extent  of  the  pollution  of  the  harbor  bottom  by  sewage.  The  bottom  has  been  pene- 
trated to  a  depth  of  ten  feet  and  samples  have  been  collected  which  showed  that 
sewage  solids  had  been  deposited  to  at  least  that  depth.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
wherever  tidal  conditions  permit  sediment  of  any  kind  to  accumulate  pollution  with 
solid  sewage  particles  takes  place. 

In  some  places  extensive  banks  of  black  sludge  containing  sewage  refuse  occur. 
So  far  as  known  these  banks  have  not  yet  seriously  impaired  the  use  of  the  main  har- 
bor channels  for  navigation,  although  it  seems  probable  that  if  a  careful  estimate  of 
the  nature  and  quantities  of  material  dredged  every  year  could  be  made  it  would  show 
than  an  appreciable  amount  of  expense  is  chargeable  to  sewage  sludge. 

The  dredging  which  is  done  to  keep  open  the  slips,  ships'  basins,  canals  and  creeks 
in  the  metropolitan  district  is  partly  attributable  to  sewage  deposits.  The  cost  of  re- 
moving this  material  is  large.  About  350,000  cubic  yards  are  yearly  dredged  from  the 
water  of  Manhattan  Island  by  the  Dock  Department  of  The  City  of  New  York  alone.  A 
part  of  the  material  removed  from  the  Ambrose  channel  in  the  Lower  bay  during  the 


434  DATA   COLLECTED 

construction  of  that  entrance  from  the  sea  consisted  of  sewage  sludge.  Considerable 
doubt  existed  at  one  time  concerning  the  origin  of  this  material,  but  investigation  has 
led  to  the  opinion  that  the  material  was  of  sewage  origin  and  that  it  was  carried  to  its 
place  of  deposit  by  the  waters  from  the  Upper  bay. 

Power  of  a  Current  to  Mocc  Scicuyc  Particles.  A  slight  current  has  sufficient 
force  to  move  the  light  sewage  particles  which  settle  upon  the  bottom.  This  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  fact  that  deposits  do  not  take  place  in  the  main  tidal  channels  of  the 
large  rivers  nor  upon  a  large  part  of  the  flats  in  Upper  New  York  bay  although  sus- 
pended matters  are  undoubtedly  present  in  the  water.  The  currents  over  the  flats 
attain  a  velocity  of  about  one  foot  per  second  at  ordinary  tides  and  this  apparently  is 
sufficient  to  keep  them  free  of  sewage  debris. 

As  is  well  known,  the  capacity  of  water  to  move  solid  matter  from  a  condition 
of  rest  on  the  bottom  of  a  stream  varies  with  the  sixth  power  of  the  velocity 
of  the  stream.  If  the  velocity  is  doubled  the  increase  in  the  force  which 
is  capable  of  moving  a  particle  from  a  condition  of  rest  on  the  bottom 
is  multiplied  64  times.  This  power  of  a  stream  to  move  or  roll  solid  mat- 
ters along  the  bottom  accounts,  in  part  for  the  formation  of  sand  bars  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  as  well  as  for  the  movement  of  gravel  and  other  heavy  solids  along 
the  beds  of  streams.  The  solid  material  carried  by  sewage  which  accumulates  near 
the  mouths  of  sewers  and  forms  sludge  banks  where  the  currents  are  weak  is  con- 
tinually being  moved  from  place  to  place  by  stronger  currents  sufficient  to  set  in  mo- 
tion solid  sewage  particles.  It  is  equally  clear  that  the  currents  are  capable  of  keep- 
ing in  motion  many  of  the  particles  which  are  so  moved. 

Disintegrating  Effect  of  Water  on  Sewage  Solids.  In  addition  to  the  mechanical 
effect  of  currents  other  forces  are  at  work  which  prevent  the  accumulation  of  larger 
deposits  than  now  take  place  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  sewer  outfalls. 

Among  the  substances  which  subside  are  masses  of  solid,  organic  particles  which 
are  broken  up  by  the  mere  lubricating  or  dissolving  power  of  the  water.  A  slight 
movement  is  sufficient  when  applied  at  the  right  place  and  moment  to  separate  the 
loosely  bound  aggregates  of  sewage  solids  into  their  constituent  parts. 

Hydrolyalx  of  Sciniye  Solids.  Once  solid  matters  have  accumulated  upon  the 
bottom  to  a  depth  of  a  few  inches,  changes  in  their  constitution  take  place  through 
the  action  of  bacteria.  The  essential  action  here  is  the  breaking  down  of  solids  to 
form  liquids.  This  action  proceeds  rapidly  beneath  the  surface  of  the  bottom.  It  takes 
place  chiefly  in  the  absence  of  oxygen.  It  is  due  in  part  to  bacterial  activity  and  in 
part  to  the  action  of  enzymes. 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  435 

The  liquefaction  of  solids  in  the  absence  of  oxygen  is  a  phenomenon  of  putrefac- 
tion and  is  attended  by  the  production  of  offensive-smelling  gases.  The  gases  take  the 
shape  of  bubbles  and  rise  to  the  surface.  In  so  doing  the  bubbles  break  open  the  ac- 
cumulations of  solid  matter  and  carry  black  masses  of  deposits  to  the  surface.  Bub- 
bling is  a  constant  phenomenon  between  the  slips  of  Manhattan  Island.  So  active  is 
it  in  places  that  the  water  sometimes  takes  on  the  appearance  of  effervescence,  with  a 
sound  like  rain  falling  upon  the  water. 

Actively  assisting  in  the  mechanical  disintegration  of  sewage  sludge  at  the  bottom 
of  the  harbor  are  a  multitude  of  minute  animals  and  plants  including  the  infusoria. 
These  propagate  in  vast  numbers  in  the  sludge  and  by  their  activities  tear  apart  and 
render  still  more  minute  particles  of  solid  matter  which  contain  enough  organic  ma- 
terial to  serve  them  as  food.  Some  of  these  organisms  require  a  considerable  supply 
of  oxygen  and  live  at  the  surface  of  the  deposits  while  others  are  able  to  exist  with  a 
very  small  supply  of  it  and  do  their  work  beneath  the  surface. 

Odors  from  Deposits.  The  odors  caused  by  the  putrefaction  of  deposits  upon  the 
iKittom  of  New  York  harbor  are  the  most  intense  and  offensive  of  any  odors  pro- 
duced by  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  the  harbor.  These  odors  are  capable  of  impart- 
ing a  peculiar  offensiveness  to  the  water.  Offensive,  also,  and  more  prevalent,  is  a 
peculiar  greasy,  nauseating  odor.  This  greasy  odor  is  noticeable  along  the  whole 
shore  line  of  the  inner  harbor,  particularly  near  beaches. 

The  odor  of  fresh  sewage  is  generally  musty  and  not  unlike  that  sometimes  noted 
in  damp  cellars  and  other  enclosed  places  which  are  in  need  of  proper  ventilation. 
This  musty  odor  is  doubtless  produced  by  molds,  enormous  growths  of  which  have  been 
found  by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  in  some  of  the  sewers  of  Manhattan. 
Sewage  air  is  usually  warm  and  saturated  with  moisture,  for  which  reason  the  odors 
present  arc  especially  apparent.  Tin;  odor  of  sewage  should  be  familiar  to  the  people 
of  New  York  for  the  sewers  are  ventilated  through  manholes  and  catch  basins  in  the 
streets  and  some  of  these  streets  are  daily  crowded  from  curb  to  curb  with  people. 
Many  large  buildings  discharge  spent  steam  into  the  sewers  with  the  result  that  clouds 
of  vapor  possessing  the  nauseating  odor  of  cooking  sewage  are  discharged  into  the 
streets. 

Where  for  any  reason  the  sewage  is  not  promptly  discharged  from  the  sewers  but 
stands  either  in  contact  with  harbor  waters,  as  in  the  case  of  tide-locked  outfalls,  or 
because  the  sewers  have  not  proper  grades  to  cause  the  sewage  matters  to  run  out 
promptly,  pronounced  and  offensive  odors  of  putrefaction  are  often  given  off.  If  a  sewer 
is  of  moderate  length,  as  are  most  of  those  in  the  metropolitan  district  of  New  York, 
and  of  proper  grade,  the  sewage  does  not  become  putrid  in  the  sewer  for  it  is  dis- 


436  DATA   COLLECTED 

charged  too  soon  after  it  is  produced  to  enable  the  fermentative  changes  involved  in 
putrefaction  to  advance  far.  Substances  exist  in  the  sewage  which  are  capable  of 
putrefaction  and  are  actually  offensive,  but  the  offensive  properties  of  these  sub- 
stances are  not  transmitted  to  the  whole  mass  of  sewage  unless  the  latter  becomes 
stagnant.  In  fact  they  are  diluted  and  rendered  less  obnoxious  for  the  time  being. 
It  is  after  the  sewage  solids  have  been  deposited  upon  the  harbor  bottom  and  decom- 
position has  set  in  that  the  putrefactive  changes  become  most  pronounced  and  the 
most  offensive  odors  are  given  off.  The  quiet  arms  of  the  harbor,  such  as  the  creeks 
and  spaces  between  the  long  piers,  most  of  which  are  veritable  sewage  traps,  are  the 
principal  places  where  offensive  odors  are  produced. 

THE  SOLIDS  WHICH  FLOAT 

Referring  now  to  the  second  class  of  solid  sewage  particles,  we  will  consider  the 
matters  which  float  upon  the  surface.  These  impurities  are  objectionable  because  they 
add  to  the  total  organic  content  of  the  water  and  on  account  of  their  appearance. 

During  calm  weather  fields  of  grease,  floating  sewage  matters  and  wood  may  be 
seen  in  New  York  harbor.  These  fields  are  often  many  acres  in  extent  and  sometimes 
a  mile  or  more  long.  They  preserve  their  integrity  with  remarkable  persistence  and 
are  not  easily  broken  up  by  ordinary  winds  or  waves  or  the  movements  of  passing 
vessels.  There  is  usually  little  difficulty  in  detecting  solid  human  excrement  in  these 
floating  masses. 

Composition  of  the  Floating  Matters.  The  floating  particles  of  sewage  are  not 
necessarily  composed  solely  of  matters  which  are  lighter  than  water.  Sewage  solids 
are  often  made  up  of  aggregates,  most  of  whose  ingredients  are  heavier  than  water  but 
which  contain  enough  gas  to  keep  them  at  the  surface. 

There  is  a  more  or  less  constant  deposit  of  solid  matter  from  sewage  particles  at 
the  surface,  some  of  the  disintegrating  particles  joining  the  mass  of  material  which 
flows  in  the  body  of  the  current  and  some  descending  to  the  bottom.  The  ceaseless 
mechanical  action  of  the  waves,  the  attrition  which  the  floating  particles  experience 
in  contact  with  other  floating  solids,  the  impact  of  the  water  against  piers  and  other 
obstructions  and  the  destructive  effects  produced  by  vessels,  all  help  to  disintegrate 
the  solids  and  resolve  them  into  smaller  masses.  The  effect  of  these  forces  is  plainly 
discernible  in  New  York  harbor.  While  large  pieces  of  excrement  are  nearly  every- 
where observable,  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  solid  matters  are  of  comparatively 
small  size. 

Although  solid  matters  are  'broken  up  into  smaller  particles  by  mechanical  action, 
actual  liquefaction  of  solid  matters  does  not  take  place  so  much  at  the  surface,  as  at 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  437 

the  bottom  of  the  water.    Fermentative  action  occurs  only  in  the  deposits  which  settle 
at  the  bottom  and  in  water  whose  oxygen  is  entirely  exhausted. 

The  water  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface  is  usually  more  heavily  charged  with 
bacteria  and  offensive  matter  than  the  water  at  greater  depths.  This,  apparently,  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  polluting  matter  enters  near  the  surface  and  to  some  extent  re- 
mains there. 

Appearance  of  the  Discharging  Sewage.  Where  a  sewer  discharges  into  the  har- 
bor a  marked  discoloration  of  the  water  usually  occurs.  The  water  contains  a  great 
number  of  visible  particles  of  paper,  feces,  and  other  solid  matters.  The  size  of  these 
particles  varies  from  scarcely  distinguishable  objects  up  to  solid  masses  six  inches  or 
more  in  length  and  several  inches  in  diameter.  The  water,  which  is  generally  of  an  olive, 
slightly  turbid  appearance,  becomes  a  brownish  gray  and  decidedly  turbid.  The  surface 
which  is  discolored  is  sharply  separated  from  the  surrounding  water.  As  the  current 
of  harbor  water  carries  the  sewage  away  from  the  outfall,  this  discolored  area  expands. 
To  all  appearances  it  keeps  its  integrity  well  but  it  eventually  loses  its  characteristic- 
ally turbid  hue  by  intermixture  with  the  water  beneath. 

Some  mixture  between  the  sewage  and  harbor  water  takes  place  from  the  outside 
edges  of  the  discolored  area,  but  diffusion  proceeds  chiefly,  apparently,  from  the  bottom 
of  the  mass  of  sewage.  The  surface  of  the  discolored  area  is  covered  with  a  film  of 
grease.  This  greasy  film  is  persistent;  it  lasts  much  longer  than  the  discolored  area 
with  which  it  is  at  first  associated.  Eventually  the  grease  becomes  broken  up  by  the 
waves  and  eddies,  but  it  remains  upon  the  surface  in  detached  films  varying  from  a 
few  square  inches  to  many  acres  in  extent. 

Beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  long  after  the  brownish  turbidity  has  disap- 
peared are  small  particles  of  paper  and  great  numbers  of  minute  white  flakes.  These 
flakes  consist  largely  of  insoluble  soaps  which  have  been  produced  by  the  chemical 
combination  of  soluble  soaps  from  the  sewage  with  the  calcium  and  magnesium  salts 
of  the  sea  water. 

Transporting  Power  of  the  Currents.  Sewage  particles  which  float  upon  the  sur- 
face are  carried  from  point  to  point  by  the  tidal  currents  and  by  the  action  of  wind. 
The  currents  cause  a  dispersion  of  the  floating  solids  to  a  certain  extent,  but  it  is  re- 
markable how  long  a  mass  of  sewage  matters  may  remain  intact  upon  the  surface. 
The  solids  may  be  carried  several  miles  without  losing  their  characteristics.  Some  re- 
mains of  fruits  and  vegetables,  as  well  as  well  as  matches,  cigar  ends,  and  other  large 
light  solid  matters  from  the  sewage  float  on  the  surface  indefinitely. 

Large  quantities  of  driftwood  come  to  the  shores,  carried  there  apparently  by 
the  action  of  the  tidal  currents  and  by  the  wind.  Much  driftwood  is  collected 


438  DATA   COLLECTED 

by  poor  persons  and  used  for  fuel.     There  are  places  on  the  shores  of  New  York  harbor 
where  this  supply  of  fuel  is  practically  inexhaustible. 

On  the  south  shore  of  Staten  Island  and  on  the  west  end  of  Coney  Island  the  drift- 
wood is  collected  into  piles  and  burned  at  the  water's  edge  in  order  to  get  rid  of  it. 
There  is  often  a  peculiarly  disagreeable  greasy  odor  to  these  accumulations. 

Effect  of  Winds.  The  wind,  which  exercises  an  important  influence  upon  the  rise 
and  fall  of  tide  in  New  York  harbor  has  a  decided  effect  upon  the  movement  of  float- 
ing objects. 

A  strong  westerly  wind  causes  floating  matters  to  flow  to  and  along  the  easterly 
shores,  and  conversely,  when  the  wind  blows  from  the  east  a  concentration  of  floating 
sewage  matters  is  cast  upon  the  western  shores  of  the  harbor.  A  moment's  reflection 
Avill  show  that  the  solid  matters  which  are  cast  ashore  or  brought  near  it  'by  the  wind 
are  likely  to  remain  there  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  become  sheltered  from  all  winds 
except  those  which  are  capable  of  forcing  the  floating  matters  nearer  to  the  land. 

The  effect  of  wind  upon  floating  objects  is  twofold: 

First,  The  wind  exercises  a  direct  propelling  effect  upon  objects  which  lie  in  part 
above  the  surrounding  water,  as  a  ship  is  moved  under  sail ; 

Second,  The  wind  causes  a  general  movement  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  water, 
which,  in  turn,  carries  floating  solid  matters  along  with  it.  This  second  effect  is  as 
pronounced  as  the  first. 

Movement  of  Solid  Particles  Toward  the  Shore.  It  has  frequently  been  noted  in 
the  studies  of  the  movement  of  floats  set  adrift  by  the  Metropolitan  Commission  that 
floating  solid  matters  sometimes  go  ashore.  The  cause  of  this  shoreward  movement 
was  at  first  thought  to  be  due  to  wind.  Thix  was  found  to  be  an  insufficient  explana- 
tion to  account  for  all  the  strandings  and  it  was  then  for  a  time  believed  to  be  caused 
by  the  movements  of  vessels.  Vessels,  it  will  be  noted,  cause  a  movement  of  water 
toward  shore  both  when  they  approach  and  when  they  leave  a  dock.  Later  it  was 
observed  that  the  floats  went  ashore  on  flood  more  often  than  on  ebb  currents,  and 
from  this  it  has  gradually  come  to  be  suspected  that,  aside  from  the  winds,  a  principle 
of  general  application  is  at  work  to  strand  the  floats.  It  is  probably  by  virtue  of  this 
principle  that  the  movement  of  floating  matters  shoreward  is  observable  in  all  rivers 
which  are  subject  to  freshet.  During  rising  stages  logs  and  driftwood  float  to  the  shore, 
and  during  falling  stages  they  move  to  the  centre  of  the  stream. 

New  York  Harbor's  Seicaye  Traps.  When  floating  solids  reach  the  shores  of  New 
York  harbor  the  piers  and  shipping  basins  catch  them  and  hold  them  as  in  a  trap. 
These  places,  protected  as  they  are  from  the  direct  force  of  the  tidal  currents,  afford 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  439 

excellent  opportunities  for  sedimentation.  They  catch  (lie  solids  which  float  into  them 
through  the  action  of  wind,  rising  stages  of  tide  anil  the  action  of  vessels  and  remain 
there,  for  there  is  no  counter  action  to  any  of  these  forces  to  carry  the  solids  away. 
The  sewage  traps  of  New  York  are  of  much  interest  when  studied  in  connection 
with  the  diffusion  and  digestion  of  the  sewage  which  is  emptied  into  these  waters. 
Knowledge  of  their  behavior  makes  it  easy  to  understand  why  it  is  that  the  slips  con- 
tinually require  to  be  dredged  in  order  that  a  proper  depth  of  water  may  be  pre- 
served for  navigation,  why  the  dredged  material  is  so  foul  and  why  it  is  that  sewage 
solids  accumulate  between  the  piers  even  when  the  bottoms  of  the  main  tidal  currents 
beyond  the  pierhead  line  are  relatively  free  from  deposits  of  sewage  origin.  Knowl- 
edge of  their  action  makes  it  easier  to  understand  why  the  extension  of  the  sewer  out- 
falls a  little  further  out  toward  the  center  of  the  tidal  currents  produces  only  a  partial 
improvement. 

THE  SUSPENDED  SOLIDS 

Nature  of  the  Suspended  Solids.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  solid  sewage  matters 
which  flow  through  the  body  of  the  tidal  currents  is  nearly  that  of  the  water  itself. 
These  particles  in  collected  form  make  sludge,  which  is  a  mixture  of  solid  and  semi- 
solid  debris.  Even  after  long  standing  to  remove  the  water,  sludge  contains  from  60 
to  90  per  cent,  water. 

Effect  of  the  Velocity  of  Current  on  Transporting  Power.  The  transporting 
power  of  water  for  suspended  sewage  solids  varies  as  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  the 
moving  current.  Therefore  if  the  velocity  is  reduced  by  one-half  the  capacity  of  the 
water  to  carry  solid  particles  in  suspension  will  be  reduced  to  one-quarter.  If  the 
stream  is  loaded  to  its  carrying  capacity  three-quarters  of  its  load  will  be  deposited 
when  the  velocity  is  reduced  by  one-half. 

Velocity  of  Won-  in  the  Sewers  in  the  New  York  District.  The  velocity  of  the  cur- 
rents into  which  the  sewage  of  New  York  and  neighboring  municipalities  is  dis- 
charged is  often  less  than  the  velocity  which  occurs  in  the  sewers.  When  harbor 
Avater  backs  into  them  by  reason  of  the  rising  tide  their  flow  is  retarded  or  stopped. 
The  flow  is  often  impeded  by  tidal  water  and  deposits  in  the  sewers  take  place.  These 
deposits  are  eventually  flushed  out  by  the  accelerated  flow  when  the  tide  recedes,  so 
that  the  final  effect  is  that  about  the  same  amount  of  solid  matter  is  discharged  as 
would  be  discharged  if  an  average  rate  of  flow  was  maintained.  The  velocity  neces- 
sary in  order  for  sewers  to  be  self-cleansing  is  usually  taken  to  be  two  to  three  feet 
per  second,  and  this  may  be  assumed  to  be  the  average  velocity  which  is  maintained 
in  the  sewers  of  the  metropolitan  district. 


440 


DATA   COLLECTED 


The  velocity  of  the  water  into  which  the  sewage  is  discharged  varies  considerably 
according  to  the  location  of  the  outlet  and  the  stage  of  the  tide.  The  velocity  in  the 
main  tidal  currents  is  also  different  in  different  parts  of  the  harbor.  Sometimes  the 
sewers  discharge  well  out  from  shore,  but  for  the  most  part  the  points  where  they 
empty  are  not  in  the  main  currents.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  full  force  of  the  tidal 
currents  never  occurs  at  a  sewer  outfall.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that  there  is  a 
complete  absence  of  current  where  the  sewers  discharge. 

Velocity  of  Tidal  Currents.  The  extensive  studies  of  tidal  phenomena  in  New  York 
harbor  made  by  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  and  by  the  Metropolitan 
Sewerage  Commission  have  given  results  from  which  the  following  data  have  been 
derived : 

There  is  a  point  in  the  tidal  period  when  the  velocity  of  the  current  is  at  a  maxi- 
mum, or  strongest.  The  maximum,  minimum  and  average  velocities  given  in  Table  IV 
refer  to  this  strongest  current. 

TABLE   IV 

VELOCITIES  OP  STRONGEST  CURRENT  IN  FEET  PER  SECOND 


Channel 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Average 

Hudson                

7.9 

2.0 

4.1 

East                                             

7.8 

2.7 

5.0 

3.9 

1.2 

2.4 

Narrows  

4.7 

1.5 

3.0 

The  least  strong  velocities  occur  in  tke  Harlem  river  and  the  greatest  in  the  East 
river.  The  velocities  in  the  Narrows  exceed  those  in  the  Harlem  river  but  little, 
while  those  in  the  Hudson  and  East  rivers  are,  roughly,  twice  as  great. 

The  velocities  of  the  currents  in  the  more  open  parts  of  the  harbor  are  much 
less  than  in  the  more  restricted  localities  where  the  cross  sections  are  smaller.  The 
velocities  in  the  Upper  and  Lower  bays  are  variable,  depending  on  the  location.  Over 
the  extensive  flats  in  the  western  part  of  Upper  New  York  bay  the  currents  seldom 
exceed  1.5  feet  per  second  in  velocity. 

To  fully  grasp  the  meaning  of  these  figures  it  should  be  understood  that  the  veloci- 
ties given  represent  the  movement  of  water  at  the  time  the  tide  is  producing  its  great- 
est effect. 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE 


441 


in  Velocity  of  Currents.  Inasmuch  as  the  currents  stop  and  reverse  four 
times  a  day  it  is  evident  that  the  figures  show  more  the  currents  which  are  available 
for  moving  for  short  periods  of  time  particles  which  have  settled  upon  the  bottom 
rather  than  currents  which  are  capable  of  preventing  deposits.  Such  high  velocities 
exist  for  but  brief  periods.  During  most  of  the  time  the  conditions  are  more  favor- 
able for  the  deposition  of  sewage  solids  than  during  those  brief  periods. 

The  figures  given  for  the  velocities  of  currents  must  also  be  understood  to  rep- 
resent surface  conditions.  The  velocities  at  the  bottom  of  the  tidal  currents  are  less 
than  those  stated. 

The  mean  velocities  are  approximately  four-fifths  of  the  surface  velocities  and  the 
bottom  velocities  still  lower.  So  that  the  lower  down  a  particle  has  fallen  the  less 
chance  it  has  of  being  again  picked  up  and  carried  along,  unless  it  has  come  to  a  con- 
dition of  actual  rest. 

The  Commission's  studies  show  that  much  more  deposition  may  be  expected  to 
take  place  in  the  Harlem  river  than  elsewhere.  Table  V  shows  the  percentage  of  time 
during  which  deposition  may  be  expected  to  take  place  at  the  points  noted. 


TABLE  V 

PERIOD  OF  TIME  DURING  WHICH  SEWAGE  SOLIDS  MAY  BE  DEPOSITED 


Place 

Per  cent,  of  time  velocity  is  less  than  2  feet  per  second  in 

Flood  Currents 

Ebb  Currents 

Total  Cycle  of  Tide 

Narrows    .... 

59 
39 
29 
70 

40 
25 
25 

72 

50 
32 
27 
71 

Hudson  river  

East  river  

Harlem  river      

442 


DATA   COLLECTED 


( 'tin-cuts  Necessary  to  More  Rolitls.  The  current  necessary  lo  nuivo  solid  particles 
along  the  bottom  is  very  slight.  Table  VI  gives  (lie  required  velocities  lo  move  vari- 
ous kinds  of  materials. 

TABLE  VI 

VELOCITIES  EEQUIRED  TO  MOVE    SOLID    PARTICLES 


Kind  of  Material 

Velocity  required  to  move  on  bottom 

Inches  per  second 

Miles  per  hour 

3 
6 
12 
24 

about    J 
about    J 
about    J 
about  1J 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  these  figures  relate  to  the  movement  of  solid  matters 
along  the  bottom  and  especially  to  the  initiation  of  movement.  The  power  of  streams 
to  lift  and  transport  solid  particles  in  suspension  is  not  nearly  so  great. 

Lack  of  Uniformity  in  Currents.  It  may  at  first  appear  that  solid  particles  should 
settle  as  rapidly  in  a  uniformly  moving  stream  as  in  a  quiet  body  of  water.  The  fact 
is,  however,  that  large  streams  of  water  do  not  move  uniformly  throughout  their  depth 
and  breadth ;  there  are  always  some  eddies  which  have  an  upward  motion  sufficient  to 
counteract  the  downward  movement  of  the  particles.  This  upward  force  of  the  eddies 
together  with  the  downward  movement  of  the  solids  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  rel- 
ative position  of  the  solid  particles  is  continually  changing. 

The  upward  movements  of  currents  are  greatest  in  shallow  streams  and  where  the 
onward  velocity  is  great,  but  it  exists  to  some  extent  in  all  streams.  Conditions 
which  affect  it  are  the  shape  and  size  of  the  channel  through  which  the  stream  is 
moving,  impediments  of  various  kinds  which  the  water  encounters  and  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  velocity. 

Irregularities  in  the  bottom  do  not  occur  to  a  conspicuous  extent  in  the  harbor 
of  New  York,  but  the  movements  of  vessels  and  the  obstructions  offered  by  piers  on 
the  waterfront  must  be  taken  into  account.  The  chief  effect  of  these  influences  appears 
to  be  restricted  to  the  currents  which  flow  along  the  shores  and  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  waters. 

It  has  been  well  established  by  the  investigations  of  the  Metropolitan  Commis- 
sion, that  a  lively  and  complete  inter-mixture  of  water  does  not  occur  in  the  harbor 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE 


443 


VELOCITIES  OF  TIDAL  CURRENTS 

UNDER  AVERAGE  COMOITIOMS 
LUNAR                                                               HOURS 

X^- 

^ 

,      Q 

/ 

\ 

4      z 

0 

,  \  

i"V" 

" 

7" 

% 

\ 

i,  12.5% 

EAS1 

Rl 

/ER 

J         UJ 

<n 

\ 

/ 

El 

SB 

\ 

\ 

FL 

30D 

/ 

\, 

/ 

i 

'  I4-.5-/.N 

\ 

7F 

% 

/ 

"14.5% 

(E 

\ 

z 

•3       Lu 

4      °- 

^  

_^" 

X^ 

~^x 

1 

z 

\ 

&&/. 

/ 

7 

5% 

> 

\I2.5  */a 

HUDS( 

IN     Rl 

VER 

1- 

,      ui 

\ 

>-        u 

,    ^ 

/ 

El 

3B 

\ 

\ 

FL 

)OD 

/ 

\ 

61 

°l°  

7 

13.5% 

^x^. 

X 

3.S  %  ' 

"^  

_—  —  " 

^r 



—  -— 

,•2.0  •/„ 

^x^ 

S 

o°Z°  _. 

^^ 

zo  %    , 

THE 

NARR 

ows 

5    z 

/ 

\ 

/ 

El 

38 

\ 

\ 

FLC 

OD 

X 

41 

r- 

^X 

s^ 

• 

*      29.5 

%  ^*- 

-»,^_^ 

_^*~ 

*^"          Jo 

s 

•      "i6' 

i 

36' 

'o 

x"""' 

28 

^T^~ 

HARL 

LM 

RIVER 

y- 

/ 

EE 

B 

X 

h 

X 

FLC 

OD 

/ 

0     o    
p 

\^^ 

3 

•>% 

^s 

13 

,          UJ 

C       35 

! 

^-___ 

__—  -"^ 

V 

% 

»        y 

444  DATA   COLLECTED 

of  New  York.  The  water  is  of  different  quality  at  different  depths  below  the  surface 
and  of  different  composition  at  different  distances  from  shore.  At  most  places  there 
is  usually  a  larger  proportion  of  sea  water  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  surface,  more 
intense  pollution  near  land  than  in  midstream,  and  more  intense  pollution  at  the 
top  than  in  the  waters  below. 

That  tidal  harbors  are  often  lacking  in  vertical  circulation  is  well  known.  The 
phenomenon  of  the  underrun,  which  is  a  current  of  sea  water  flowing  inland  close  to 
the  bottom  of  a  channel,  affords  an  illustration  of  this  point.  The  outflow  of  land 
water  on  the  surface  of  rivers  where  they  join  the  sea  is  another  example  of  the  same 
phenomenon. 

Relative  Capacity  of  Land  Water  and  Sea  Water  to  Transport  Sewage  Particles. 
It  is  a  fact  of  great  importance,  but  one  generally  overlooked,  that  the  transporting 
power  of  a  river  for  solid  particles  in  suspension  is  diminished  by  the  presence  of  sea 
water.  Water  which  is  strongly  saline  will  not  transport  as  much  solid  matter  in 
suspension  as  will  water  which  is  Avithout  salt.  This  means  that  rivers  which  dis- 
charge into  the  sea  deposit  solid  matters  not  alone  because  the  velocity  of  their  cur- 
rent is  checked  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean  but  because  they  become  more  salty. 

Sewage  which  is  discharged  into  a  tidal  harbor  will  deposit  more  solids  than 
would  be  deposited  if  the  discharge  took  place  into  a  land  water  stream  flowing  at 
the  same  velocity.  The  capacity  of  a  harbor  for  carrying  sewage  matters  to  sea, 
therefore,  cannot  be  estimated  safely  from  information  obtained  merely  from  a  study 
of  inland  rivers. 

Experiments  to  Show  Relative  Rate  of  Deposit  of  Solid  Matters  in  Sea  Water 
and  Land  Water.  In  order  to  compare  the  relative  rate  at  which  sewage  sludge  de- 
posits in  land  and  sea  water  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  made  a  number 
of  experiments,  the  result  of  which  was  to  show  that  deposits  took  place  much  more 
rapidly  in  sea  water  than  in  land  water. 

Two  bottles,  alike  in  all  respects,  were  nearly  filled,  with  sea  water  in  one  case 
and  land  water  in  the  other.  An  equal  quantity  of  sludge  which  had  been  deposited 
from  sewage  was  then  added  to  the  water  in  each  bottle.  The  bottles  were  thoroughly 
shaken  and  set  upon  a  table  to  enable  the  deposit  to  settle  out. 

At  the  end  of  one-half  hour  the  water  in  the  bottle  containing  sea  water  was  notice- 
ably clearer  than  the  water  in  the  other.  At  the  end  of  one  hour  the  difference  was 
very  marked.  A  heavy  deposit  had  settled  upon  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  containing 
sea  water  and  the  supernatant  Avater  was  clearing  rapidly.  There  was  little  change 
in  the  bottle  containing  land  water.  At  the  end  of  two  hours  there  was  little  differ- 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  445 

ence  in  the  appearance  of  the  land  water.  Most  of  the  sludge  had  settled  upon  the 
bottom  of  the  bottle  containing  sea  water  and  the  water  was  clearer  than  it  had  been. 

At  the  end  of  three  hours  some  deposit  was  visible  at  the  bottom  of  the  land  water, 
but  the  water  itself  was  not  as  clear  as  the  sea  Avater  had  been  at  the  end  of  the 
first  half  hour.  The  bottle  containing  sea  water  had  deposited  practically  all  the 
sludge  which  had  been  put  into  it.  As  nearly  as  could  be  estimated  from  mere  inspec- 
tion the  sea  water  had  deposited  its  suspended  matter  more  than  twelve  times  as 
rapidly  as  had  the  land  water. 

Distribution  of  Hard  and  Soft  Materials.  The  material  at  the  surface  of  the 
bottom  of  New  York  harbor  varies  considerably  in  composition  at  different  places. 
Taking  a  standard  United  States  Government  chart  of  the  harbor  as  a  basis,  areas  de- 
scribed as  "  soft,"  "  sticky,"  "  niud  "  and  "  ooze  "  wrere  outlined  and  colored  by  the 
Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission.  These  colored  areas  showed  interesting  results. 
Above  the  Narrows  the  hard  areas  were  found  to  be  all  situated  well  out  toward  the 
centre  of  the  waterways,  and  the  softer  areas  near  the  shores.  Below  the  Narrows 
this  order  was  reversed. 

Condition  of  Cliniinclx,  Xoir  and  Formerly.  Interesting  comparisons  were  made 
by  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  between  the  most  recent  charts  issued  by 
the  Government  and  the  earliest  charts,  with  a  view  to  determine  the  extent  to  which 
the  harbor  has  been  filling  with  sewage  sludge. 

One  of  the  earliest  charts  for  which  any  precision  can  be  claimed  is  the  well- 
known  work  which  was  published  in  1780  by  J.  F.  W.  Des  Barres,  from  surveys  and 
observations  made  by  officers  of  the  British  navy.  This  chart  was  less  accurately 
made  than  the  charts  of  the  present  day,  but  it  is  correct  enough  to  show  that 
the  most  important  channels  and  shallows  which  exist  at  the  present  time  existed 
one  hundred  and  twenty-three  years  ago.  In  Upper  New  York  bay  what  is  now  called 
the  east  anchorage  was  termed  "  Mud  Flatt,"  while  the  shallows  on  the  Jersey  shore 
opposite  were  known  as  "  West  Flatt."  The  main  channel  to  sea  was,  as  nearly  as 
can  be  seen,  in  about  the  location  of  the  main  channel  to-day.  The  depths  in  the  chan- 
nels have  increased  rather  than  diminished ;  a  result  which  has  been  accomplished  by 
dredging. 

The  earliest  chart  of  New  York  bay  and  harbor  which  was  issued  by  the  United 
States  Government  was  made  under  the  direction  of  Thomas  E.  Gedney,  Lieutenant, 
U.  S.  N.,  and  published  in  1844-5.  This  chart,  like  its  predecessor  just  mentioned, 
seems  to  confirm  the  belief  that  the  channels  and  shallow  parts  of  the  harbor  have 
not  suffered  serious  impairment  in  recent  times. 


446  DATA   COLLECTED 

This  is  somewhat  surprising  iii  view  of  the  quantity  of  sewage  entering  these 
waters  and  the  fact  that  the  amount  of  sediment  due  to  natural  causes  carried  by  the 
rivers  of  the  metropolitan  district  into  New  York  harbor  each  year  is  very  great,  not 
to  mention  the  drift  of  sand  toward  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  along  the  Long  Island 
and  New  Jersey  beaches. 

Normal  Solid-  Matter  Carried  by  the  Hudson.  As  compared  with  streams 
which  empty  into  the  Atlantic  south  of  New  York  the  Hudson  and  other  rivers  which 
discharge  in  the  metropolitan  district  carry  but  little  solid  matter  derived  by  natural 
agencies  from  the  land.  The  Hudson  for  60  miles  above  New  York  has  but  few  tribu- 
taries. The  westward  slope  of  the  Catskills  carries  much  natural  drainage  away  from 
the  Hudson.  The  main  body  of  water  collected  by  the  Hudson  river  is  from  mountain 
sources.  The  principal  tributary  which  flows  through  fertile  land  is  the  Mohawk, 
which  empties  into  the  Hudson  150  miles  from  New  York.  From  this  point  to  the 
ocean  the  Hudson  may  be  considered  to  be  a  tidal  basin  in  which  opportunities  for 
sedimentation  everywhere  occur. 

The  amount  and  composition  of  the  suspended  matter  derived  from  natural  sources 
probably  varies  considerably  at  different  seasons  of  year,  according  to  the  amount  of 
rainfall  and  similar  .conditions.  In  considering  the  question  of  river  sediment,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  a  large  portion  of  the  material  which  is  carried  by  the  river  is 
not  transported  as  matter  actually  in  suspension,  but  is  pushed  and  rolled  along  the 
bottom.  This  bottom  drift,  as  it  is  termed,  may  be  an  important  element  in  the  total 
amount  of  material  moved.  There  are,  apparently,  no  reliable  observations  of  the 
amount  of  this  material  carried  by  any  river  except  the  Mississippi,  and  in  this  case 
the  observations  are  not  as  exact  as  could  be  desired. 

SECTION   III 
THE  LIQUIDS  OF   SEWAGE 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  action  of  bacteria  and  minute  animals  in  breaking 
up  the  solid  particles  of  sewage  and  liquefying  them.  The  liquid  so  produced,  as  well 
as  the  liquid  natural  to  the  sewage,  passes  through  certain  chemical  changes  while  under- 
going assimilation.  Nature  requires  that  all  organic  matters  be  resolved  into  stable 
mineral  forms.  In  this  final  shape  matters  of  sewage  origin  are  quite  inoffensive  and 
incapable  of  becoming  so.  The  sewage  solids  must  be  liquefied  before  they  can  be 

oxidized. 

OIL  AND  GREASE 

Sewage  contains  nothing  which  is  more  characteristic  or  which  alters  more  slowly 
in  composition  when  discharged  into  harbor  waters  than  oil  and  grease.  The  quantities 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  447 

of  the  greasy  matters  are  not  large,  but  the  effects  which  they  produce  are  unmistakable. 
Mention  has  been  made  elsewhere  of  the  greasy  sleek  which  sewage  produces  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water  into  which  it  is  discharged.  This  sleek  is  not  conspicuous  in  New 
York  harbor,  but  at  times  large  patches  of  it  are  distinctly  visible. 

This  sleek  floats  upon  the  shores  and  imparts  a  strong,  unpleasant  greasy  smell. 
The  driftwood  smells  of  it.  Balls  of  grease  formed  in  the  sewers  of  New  York  have 
been  found  on  the  sea  beaches  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  many  miles  from  the  city. 

Grease  of  Industrial  Origin.  There  are  many  industries  situated  on  the  shores  of 
New  York  harbor  which  produce  oil  and  grease  and  discharge  it  as  waste  into  these 
waters.  Of  these  oil  refineries  are  the  most  prominent. 

It  is  probable  that  oil  tank  vessels  entering  the  harbor  in  ballast  sometimes  pump 
their  greasy  water  overboard  before  taking  on  a  new  load  of  oil.  Manufacturing 
establishments,  slaughter  houses  and,  in  fact,  most  factories,  refineries,  gas  houses  and 
industrial  establishments  empty  their  liquid  wastes  into  these  waters. 

Grease  from  Dwellings.  The  aggregate  quantity  of  grease  wasted  from  private 
dwellings,  hotels  and  restaurants  is  large,  although  figures  are  not  available  to  show 
the  exact  amount.  Grease  enters  the  sewers  in  most  concentrated  condition  when 
poured  in  liquid  and  semi-liquid  form  from  cooking  utensils  through  kitchen  sinks, 
but  a  continuous  stream  of  greasy  matter  is  contributed  in  the  soapy  water  which  is 
an  invariable  and  prominent  constituent  of  sewage. 

THE  LIQUID  ORGANIC  MATTERS  OF  SEWAGE 

We  have  seen  that  50  per  cent,  of  the  organic  matter  of  sewage  is  present  in 
liquid  form.  Besides  the  amount  of  liquid  organic  matter  which  the  sewage  carries, 
it  is  to  'be  noted  that  all  solid  organic  matters  must  assume  the  liquid  form  before  they 
can  be  assimilated.  The  whole  process  of  assimilation  then  becomes  essentially  one 
of  oxidation. 

The  Phenomena  of  Oxidation.     The  oxidation  of  sewage  takes  place  in  several 

ways : 

First,  a  small  amount  of  direct  oxidation  of  certain  liquid  chemicals  in 
the  sewage  occurs.  The  oxygen  for  this  reaction  is  that  contained  in  all  natural 
water  which  is  the  liquid  earner  portion  of  the  sewage. 

Second,  bacterial  action  may  oxidize  directly  another  portion  of  the  liquid 
organic  matter  and  abstract  more  of  the  dissolved  oxygen.  If  sufficient  oxy- 
gen is  present,  the  process  takes  place  without  producing  foul  odors. 

Third,  liquid  and  solid  organic  matters  broken  down  by  putrefactive 
action  produce  unstable  compounds  which  must  later  become  oxidized  by  fer- 
mentation. If  there  is  an  insufficient  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  present  it 
will  be  abstracted  from  compounds  containing  oxygen. 


448  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  oxidation  of  organic  matters  is  essentially  a  process  of  combustion.  Oxygen 
is  required  and  carbon  dioxide  is  produced,  as  are  ammonia  and  water.  Finally  the 
ammonia  is  oxidized  to  nitrous  and  nitric  acids,  and  these,  uniting  with  alkaline 
su'bstances  natural  to  the  water,  form  nitrates. 

Source  of  Oxygen.  The  oxygen  which  is  available  for  the  oxidation  of  the  im- 
purities is  that  which  is  dissolved  in  the  water  and  in  dissolved  chemical  compounds 
containing  oxygen.  The  principal  source  of  the  dissolved  oxygen  is  the  atmospheric 
air  with  which  the  water  is  in  contact. 

The  depletion  and  replenishment  of  the  amount  of  oxygen  available  for  oxida- 
tion purposes  is  taking  place  continually.  The  original  water  or  carrier  portion  of  the 
sewage  is  originally  saturated  with  oxygen.  As  the  sewage  flows  towards  its  dis- 
charging point  the  dilution  may  be  so  small  and  the  time  so  long  that  a  large  part  of 
the  original  oxygen  may  have  been  consumed. 

The  discharge  into  the  harbor  of  a  sewage  deficient  in  oxygen  dilutes,  so  to  speak, 
the  dissolved  oxygen  of  the  receiving  water.  This  operates  to  deplete  the  amount  of 
oxygen  per  unit  available. 

The  demand  for  oxygen  of  those  products  of  putrefactive  decomposition  which 
are  formed  in  the  sludge  at  the  bottom  of  the  harbor  causes  a  further  depletion  of 
the  dissolved  oxygen. 

Rate  of  Oxidation  Largely  Dependent  on  Lirinrj  Organisms.  The  chemical 
changes,  and  particularly  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  which  occnr  during  digestion 
of  sewage  by  water  has  been  investigated  in  England  by  Letts  and  Adeney  and  made 
the  subject  of  an  exhaustive  report  to  the  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal  of 
Great  Britain.1  The  work  of  these  investigators  was  based  on  the  well-known 
researches  of  Frankland,  which  showed  that  the  essential  cause  of  change 
was  one  of  oxidation,  and  that  of  Dupre,  who  proved  that  the  rate  of  oxidation  Avas 
greater  in  the  presence  of  'bacteria  than  in  their  absence. 

It  appears  from  the  opinions  reached  by  Letts  and  Adeney  that  the  significance 
of  the  presence  of  sewage  matters  in  water  depends  not  alone  on  the  exact  quantity 
and  chemical  composition  of  those  wastes,  but  rather  upon  the  fermentative  prop- 
erties of  the  mixture  of  water  and  sewage.  The  rate  at  which  sewage  matters  under- 
go change  depends  largely  upon  the  influence  of  the  organisms  present.  Letts  and 
Adeney  were  convinced  that  the  purification  of  sewage  in  sea  water  was  chiefly  a 
physiological  process  analogous  to  the  respiratory  process  of  higher  vegetable  organ- 
isms, and  they  recognized  that  enzymic  action  is  intimately  associated  with  the 
process. 


•See  Appendix  No.  6,  Fifth  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal,  1908. 


Sewage  Sludge  and  Water  Immediately  after  Mixing 


Sewage  Sludge  and  Water  two  Hours  after  Mixing 


Experiment  Showing  that  Sewage  Sludge  Settles  more  Rapidly  in  Sea  Water  than  in  Land  Water.  After  two  hours 
the  mixture  of  sludge  with  sea  water  showed  a  black  deposit  on  the  bottom  and  a  comparatively  clear  super- 
natent  fluid.  The  appearance  of  the  land  water  with  which  an  equal  quantity  of  sludge  had  been  mixed 
was  practically  unchanged 


Dredging  Sewage  Sludge  from  between  Docks  in  Manhattan.     Dredges  are  constantly  needed  to  remove  black, 
foul-smelling  deposits  from  the  slips  along  the  waterfront 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWACE  440 

The  Tiro  Httiyrx  of  Decomposition.  There  are  two  stages  of  decomposition  when 
sewage  is  discharged  into  water,  according  to  Letts  and  Adeney. 

In  the  first  the  organic  matters  are  first  fermented  completely.  The  products  of 
this  fermentative  change  arc  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  and  organic  substances  pos- 
sessing the  clipmic.nl  and  physical  properties  of  the  humus  of  cultivated  soils. 

In  (lie  second  stage  of  decomposition  the  humus  matters  and  the  ammonia  com- 
pounds are  further  fermented,  the  resulting  products  being  carbonic  acid,  nitrous  and 
nitric  acids  and  water. 

The  central  feature  of  the  first  stage  is  the  oxidation  of  organic  carbon  to  carbon 
dioxide  and  the  central  feature  of  the  second  stage  is  the  oxidation  of  the  ammoniacal 
nitrogen  to  nitrous  and  nitric  acids. 

Since  the  self-purification  of  sewage  polluted  harbor  water  is  so  largely  a  matter 
of  oxidation  it  is  desirable  to  consider  the  extent  to  which  the  dissolved  oxygen  can 
lie  exhausted  without  serious  consequences.  This  inquiry  involves  a  consideration  of 
the  rate  at  which  the  oxygen  is  replenished  from  the  atmosphere,  for  it  is  evident  that 
after  reducing  the  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  to  a  certain  point  the  rate  of  draft  must 
not  exceed  the  rate  of  replenishment 

'\ornwl  Quantity  of  Oxygen  in  Harbor  Water.  The  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen 
present  in  the  water  of  a  tidal  harbor  consisting  of  half  sea  water  and  half  land  water 
is  <i.:!0  cubic  centimetres  per  litre  at  18  degrees  centigrade.  According  to  Letts  and 
Adeney,  the  oxygen  can  be  reduced  to  3.45  cubic  centimetres  per  litre,  temporarily,  at 
least,  without  danger  of  killing  fish.  Below  this  point  it  is  unwise  to  exhaust  the  oxygen, 
due  reference  being  had  not  only  to  the  importance  of  fishing  interests  but  also  to  the 
necessity  of  maintaining  a  wide  margin  of  safety  against  the  exhaustion  of  oxygen  and 
the  consequent  production  of  putrefactive  odors. 

The  rate  of  absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  atmospheric  air  varies,  according  to  Letts 
and  Adeney,  between  0.08  c.c.  per  litre  per  hour  for  sea  water  and  0.03  c.c.  per  litre  per 
hour  for  land  water  at  ordinary  summer  temperatures,  and  may  be  taken  as  0.055  c.c. 
per  hour  for  water  such  as  that  in  the  harbor  of  New  York  when  the  latter  contains 
equal  parts  of  sea  water  and  land  water. 

The  experimental  conditions  under  which  the  above  data  are  founded  were  obtained 
in  breaking  the  surface  of  the  waters  either  by  a  discharge  of  air  three  inches  below  the 
surface  or  by  a  mechanical  stirrer.  The  waters  of  New  York  harbor  are  not  ordinarily 
so  much  broken  by  the  wind  action.  Assuming,  however,  that  these  favorable  conditions 
do  obtain  it  appears  that  an  admixture  of  sewage  which  would  not  cause  a  greater  draft 
upon  the  oxygen  than  0.055  c.c.  per  litre  per  hour  would  not  cause  exhaustion  and  lead 
to  putrefactive  changes. 


450  DATA   COLLECTED 

Theoretically  Permissible  Draft  Upon  the  Oxygen.  As  a  practical  result  of  their 
studies,  Letts  and  Adeney  concluded  that  the  dissolved  oxygen  in  harbor  waters  is  gen- 
erally not  in  danger  of  being  completely  absorbed  in  forty-eight  hours  if  the  waters 
are  mixed  with  sewage  in  proportion  not  greater  than  five  per  cent.,  provided  that  the 
solid  matters  have  been  separated  by  simple  subsidence  and  the  sewage  does  not  con- 
tain appreciable  quantities  of  directly  oxidizable  substances.  This  opinion  is  in  ac- 
cord with  American  experience  where  sewage  has  been  discharged  into  rivers. 

The  studies  made  in  America  have  shown  that  to  avoid  exhaustion  of  oxygen  the 
dilution  must  be  in  the  proportion  of,  at  least,  20  to  25  parts  of  water  to  one  part  of 
ordinary  sewage,  although  there  may  be  conditions  where  nuisance  may  arise  where 
the  dilution  amounts  to  nearly  50  parts  of  water  to  one  part  of  sewage. 

Whether  sea  water  will  absorb  more  sewage  than  laud  water  without  producing  a 
nuisance  has  not  yet  been  definitely  determined  in  a  practical  way,  although  it  seems 
certain  that  land  water,  gallon  for  gallon,  is  capable  of  disposing  in  a  normal  manner 
of  more  sewage  than  will  sea  water.  It  is  worth  bearing  in  mind  in  this  connection 
that  sea  water,  when  saturated  with  oxygen,  contains  nearly  20  per  cent,  less  oxygen 
than  land  water  under  the  same  conditions. 

Amount  of  Oxygen  in  the  Water  of  New  York  Harbor.  The  investigations  of  the 
Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission  of  New  York  have  shown  that  a  substantial  re- 
duction in  the  normal  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  exists  in  the  waters  of  New  York 
harbor.  As  might  be  expected  the  draft  upon  the  oxygen  is  greatest  in  the  inner  part 
of  the  harbor,  that  is,  north  of  the  Narrows,  where  the  proportion  of  sewage  to  water 
is  greatest. 

In  the  Hudson  river,  above  the  city  limits,  in  the  East  river  beyond  Hell  Gate, 
and  in  the  harbor  outside  the  Narrows  the  quantity  of  oxygen  available  for  the  dis- 
posal of  sewage  matters  is  normal  or  nearly  so. 

In  some  of  the  more  restricted  parts  of  New  York  harbor  there  is  practically  no 
dissolved  oxygen  to  be  found  in  the  waters.  The  waters  of  New  town  and  Gowanus 
creeks  are  practically  devoid  of  oxygen,  as  are  those  of  Wallabout  canal  and  the  Pas- 
saic  river. 

More  significant  still,  because  of  the  larger  body  of  water  involved  and  the  greater 
importance  of  the  neighboring  territory  affected,  is  the  condition  of  the  Harlem  river. 
The  Harlem  near  its  confluence  with  the  East  river  has  less  than  one-quarter  of  the 
amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  which  it  should  possess  and  the  river  is  markedly  deficient 
in  oxygen  from  end  to  end. 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE 


451 


Zone*  \Vlicrc  (l.ry</en  /»  Depleted.  With  reference  to  the  three  main  channels 
into  Upper  New  York  bay,  there  is  found  a  gradual  decrease  of  dissolved  oxygen  as  one 
proceeds  from  the  ocean  inward. 

First,  with  respect  to  the  main  ship  route,  /,  c.,  via  the  Lower  bay,  Narrows,  Upper 
bay  and  Hudson  river.  Table  VII  shows  the  depletion  in  regular  order  to  the  Upper 
bay  and  then  a  better  condition  proceeding  up  the  Hudson. 

i 

TABLE  VII 

DISSOLVED  OXYGEN  IN  THE  HAKBOH  WATER  PROCEEDING  FROM  THE  LOWER  BAY  UP  THE 

HUDSON  KIVER 


Channel 


Per  Cent.  Saturated 
With  Oxygen 


Lower  bay 

Narrows 

Upper  bay 

Hudson  to  Spuyten  Duyvil 

Hudson  north  of  Spnyten  Duyvil. 


97 

83 
67 

72 
83 


Table  VIII  shows  a  very  decided  depletion  up  the  Harlem  with  an  im- 
proved condition  out  of  the  Sound  end  of  the  East  river.  The  actual  figures  for  the 
Harlem  and  the  lower  East  river  are  already  at,  or  very  close  to,  the  absolute  lower 
limit  required  by  fish  life. 

TABLE  VIII 

DISSOLVED  OXYGEN  IN  THE  HARBOR  WATER  PROCEEDING  FROM  THE  LOWER  BAY  UP  THE 

EAST  RIVER 


Channel 


Lower  bay 

Narrows 

Upper  bay 

East  river  to  Hell  Gate. . . . 

Harlem  river 

East  river  to  Throgs  Neck. 


Per  Cent.  Saturated 
With  Oxygen 


97 
83 
67 
65 
55 
8fi 


452 


DATA  COLLECTED 


TABLE  IX 

DISSOLVED  OXYGEN  IN  THE  HARBOR  WATER  PROCEEDING  FROM  THE  LOWER  BAY  UP  THE 

PASSAIC  KIVER 


Channel 

Per  Cent.  Saturated 
With  Oxygen 

Lower  buy                         

97 

Narrows  

83 

Kill  van  Kull  

79 

Newark  bav    

76 

Passaic  river  

0.4 

The  above  figures  are  averages  of  the  oxygen  found  at  various  depths  and  of  con- 
ditions of  tidal  currents.  Samples  were  taken  in  the  centre  of  the  channel. 

Fish  cannot  thrive  in  water  when  the  oxygen  dissolved  therein  has  been  reduced 
to  about  55  per  cent,  saturation,  from  which  fact  it  is  to  be  noted  just  how  bad  the 
East  and  Harlem  rivers  have  grown  to  be. 

Considering  the  waters  as  a  whole,  somewhat  less  oxygen  is  found  at  the  surface 
than  through  the  depth  of  the  water,  but  the  difference  is  generally  not  great. 

Samples  taken  on  flood  tide  show  the  influence  of  bringing  iii  the  water  laden  with 
dissolved  oxygen.  In  practically  every  case  the  waters  of  a  flood  current  have  more 
dissolved  oxygen  than  those  of  the  corresponding  ebb  current.  Table  X  shows  that  witli 
the  exception  of  the  Harlem  and  Sound  end  of  the  East  river  there  is  from  4  to  18  per 
cent,  more  oxygen  to  be  found  in  flood  currents  than  in  ebb  currents. 

TABLE  X 
DISSOLVED  OXYGEN  IN  THE  WATER  DURING  EBB  AND  FLOOD  CURRENTS 


Per  Cent.  Saturated  with  Dissolved  Oxygen 


Place 


Flood 

Ebb 

100 

95 

Narrows  

92 

74 

78 

64 

Hudson  river  to  Spuyten  Duyvil  

76 

66 

Hudson  river  above  Spuyten  Duyvil         .    . 

84 

83 

East  river  to  Hell  Gate  

69 

60 

East  river,  Hell  Gate  to  Throgs  Neck  

80 

92 

Harlem  river  

55 

56 

Kill  van  Kull 

82 

78 

Newark  bay  

78 

74 

Arthur  Kill  

100 

73 

DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  453 

The  Supply  of  Oxygen.  The  absorption  of  atmospheric  oxygen  by  water  proeeeds 
very  rapidly  from  the  surface  downward  when  once  the  oxygen  has  penetrated  the  sur- 
face, according  to  Letts  and  Adeney.  These  authors  found  that  as  soon  as  oxygen  was 
dissolved  by  the  water  at  the  surface  it  was  drawn  rapidly  throughout  the  depth  of  the 
water,  the  reason  apparently  being  some  unexplained  process  of  gravitational  stream- 
ing. The  dissolved  oxygen  shows  practically  no  tendency  to  accumulate  near  the  sur- 
face, but  passes  almost  as  quickly  through  it  as  it  is  dissolved.  In  consequence  of  this 
peculiar  phenomenon  the  aeration  of  sea  water  is  nearly  always  uniform  through  its 
depth.  There  is  a  slight  tendency  in  land  water  for  the  oxygen  to  accumulate  at  the  top. 

Sewage  Saturation  and  the  Production  of  Odors.  By  whatever  process  the  oxida- 
tion of  sewage  matters  proceeds,  that  progress  is  satisfactory  only  so  long  as  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  oxygen  is  available.  When  the  dissolved  oxygen  becomes  exhausted, 
putrefactive  changes  set  in  and  with  these  offensive  odors  are  produced.  These  odors  are 
particularly  disagreeable  when  putrefaction  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  sea  water. 
In  this  case  the  avidity  of  the  micro-organisms  for  oxygen  is  so  great  that  various  com- 
pounds of  oxygen,  which  under  ordinary  circumstances  are  stable,  are  destroyed  for 
the  oxygen  which  they  contain.  As  a  consequence  of  this  action  gases,  of  which  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  is  an  example,  are  released.  These  gases  escape  in  bubbles  from 
the  water  and  often  give  rise  to  offensively  smelling  odors  as  already  noted.  As  com- 
pared with  fresh  water  streams,  lakes  and  other  bodies  of  inland  water,  New  York  har- 
bor is  not  a  favorable  place  for  the  disposal  of  sewage  so  far  as  this  question  is  concerned. 

Relation  Between  Diffusion  and  Digestion  of  tic-wage.  It  is  evident  from  the  fore- 
going, that,  in  order  to  employ  the  great  volume  of  water  flowing  in  and  out  of  New 
York  harbor  so  as  to  dispose  of  sewage  without  producing  a  nuisance  there  is  required 
the  fulfillment  of,  at  least,  two  main  conditions : 

First,  the  practicability  of  diffusing  the  sewage  with  the  Avater. 
Second,  the  quantity  of  sewage  must  not  be  too  great  for  the  quantity  of  water 
into  which  it  is  discharged. 

The  presence  of  minute  particles  of  suspended  matter  in  the  volume  of  the  main 
I  idal  currents  is  in  itself  the  least  objectionable  feature  connected  with  the  disposal 
of  sewage  by  diffusion.  But  the  accumulation  of  these  small  particles  form  extensive 
and  foul-smelling  masses  of  sludge  and  render  large  arms  of  the  harbor  water  black 
and  foul  smelling. 

Large  particles  which  float  upon  the  surface  are  offensive  to  the  sight  and  break 
up  to  form  the  smaller  particles  which  are  carried  in  suspension.  They  add  to  the 
accumulations  of  sludge  on  the  bottom.  Yet  the  total  quantity  of  the  large  suspended 


454  DATA   COLLECTED 

particles  is  not  great  when  compared  with  the  total  quantity  of  solid  organic  matter 
carried  beneath  the  surface. 

The  heavy  particles  carried  by  sewage,  notably  sand  and  other  solid  substances 
which  rapidly  deposit  near  sewer  outfalls,  are  for  the  most  part  inorganic  in  compo- 
sition and  contribute  but  little  to  the  off  en  siveness  of  the  water.  Yet  as  Dunbar1  has 
remarked,  it  may  be  a  mistake  to  regard  mineral  matter  like  .sand  as  unobjectionable  be- 
cause of  its  inorganic  composition.  The  mineral  particles  are  covered  with  organic 
matters  which  are  putrescible.  When  sand  from  sewers  accumulates  in  quantity  it 
may  give  rise  to  extremely  unpleasant  odors. 

The  grease  which  flows  upon  the  surface  or  is  deposited  upon  the  harbor  bottom 
gives  rise  to  peculiar  and  unpleasant  odors  and  is  unsightly  in  appearance,  but  its 
worst  effect  is  local.  It  is  not  to  be  compared  in  offensivencss  with  solid  floating  par- 
ticles of  excrement,  or  in  potential  harm  with  the  other  organic  impurities  which  are 
in  solution  and  suspension  in  the  harbor  waters. 

The  organic  matters  which  are  in  solution  and  the  solids  which  are  capable  of 
producing  these  organic  matters  under  suitable  conditions  of  putrefaction  constitute 
the  principal  objection  which  may  be  raised  against  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  New 
York  harbor,  except  in  so  far  as  public  health  is  directly  connected  witli  this  subject. 
This  connection  lies  chiefly  in  the  bacterial  condition  of  the  water  and  the  uses  to 
which  the  water  is  put  by  the  public  in  bathing  and  cultivating  oysters  and  will  not 
be  dealt  with  in  this  chapter. 

The  whole  problem  of  the  disposal  of  sewage  into  New  York  harbor,  therefore,  re- 
solves itself  largely  into  a  question  of  how  and  to  what  extent  diffusion  and  digestion 
may  be  carried  on  with  the  certainty  of  producing  uniformly  satisfactory  results.  The 
remaining  portion  of  this  chapter  will,  therefore,  be  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  some 
of  the  principles  of  diffusion  and  to  a  brief  description  of  a  number  of  experiments 
made  by  the  Metropolitan  Commission  iu  order  to  obtain  a  better  knowledge  of  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  diffusion  and  digestion  of  sewage  in  New  York  harbor 
can  be  made  to  take  place. 

SECTION  IV 

EXPERIMENTAL  STUDIES  OF  THE  DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEW- 
AGE IN  NEW  YORK  HARBOR 

The  relation  between  diffusion  and  digestion  of  sewage  in  water  is  close,  although 
it  is  by  no  means  always  obvious.  A  thorough  intermixture  of  the  sewage  with  the 


•Principles  of  Sewage  Treatment  by  Prof.  Dr.  Dunbar,  190S,  p.  47. 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  455 

water  is  indispensable  for  the  assimilation  of  the  liquid  organic  matters,  but  it  is  not 
necessary  in  order  that  a  rapid  liquefaction  of  the  organic  solids  should  take  place. 

DIFITUSION  OF  SEWAGE  IN  NEW  YORK  HARBOR 

Setting  aside  for  the  present  the  question  of  mechanical  transportation  of  sewage 
particles  from  a  sewer  outfall  through  the  displacing  action  of  tidal  currents,  we  will 
proceed  to  consider  sonic  general  facts  concerning  the  dispersion  and  diffusion  of  sew- 
age in  water. 

Definition  of  the  Terms  Dispersion  and  Diffusion.  The  term  dispersion  implies  a 
separation  and  scattering  of  solid  particles,  while  diffusion  refers  especially  to  an  in- 
termixture of  liquids.  AVhen  dispersion  and  diffusion  proceed  satisfactorily  the  water 
of  a  harbor  which  receives  sewage  becomes  uniformly  charged  with  the  solid  and  liquid 
sewage  matters.  When  diffusion  and  dispersion  do  not  take  place  satisfactorily  the 
sewage  may  flow  in  a  mass  upon,  alongside  or  within  the  natural  body  of  water. 

It  is  sometimes  erroneously  assumed  that  diffusion  is  everywhere  and  at  all  times 
proceeding  rapidly  in  natural  bodies  of  water  and  that  sewage  becomes  intermixed  and 
invisible  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  water  into  which  it  is  discharged.  The  fact  is  that  no 
such  rapid  and  general  intermixture  of  water  and  sewage  ordinarily  takes  place. 

Effect  of  Discharging  Sewage  at  the  Surface.  Where  sewage  is  discharged  at  the 
surface  of  a  harbor  diffusion  proceeds  slowly.  The  sewage  flows  away  upon  the  surface 
and,  in  the  absence  of  currents  capable  of  producing  diffusion,  a  stratum  of  heavily  con- 
taminated water  lies  at  the  surface,  while  the  main  body  of  water  flowing  below  remains 
relatively  unpolluted.  There  are  many  examples  of  this  method  of  discharge,  with  all 
its  unsatisfactory  consequences  in  The  City  of  New  York  and  neighboring  municipali- 
ties. 

Effect  of  Discharging  Sewage  Below  the  Surface.  When  sewage  is  discharged  be- 
neath the  surface  of  harbor  water  it  usually  rises  to  the  top  close  to  the  point  where 
it  is  discharged.  It  spreads  out  upon  the  surface  as  though  it  had  been  discharged 
there.  Only  the  action  of  comparatively  rapid  currents  of  tidal  water  or  the  discharge 
of  small  quantities  of  sewage  at  great  depths  below  the  surface  is  apparently  capable 
of  producing  sufficient  diffusion  to  prevent  the  appearance  of  sewage  upon  the  surface. 
.Judging  by  the  experience  of  the  few  cities  which  have  attempted  to  discharge  sewage 
beneath  the  surface  of  harbor  waters  the  advantages  gained  by  this  method  of  disposal 
are  likely  to  be  incommensurate  with  the  increased  expense  of  pumping  the  sewage  and 
constructing  the  sewer  outfalls.  The  experiences  of  Boston  and  the  Metropolitan  Sewer- 
age Commission  of  Massachusetts  in  discharging  sewage  beneath  the  surface  of  Boston 
harbor  point  to  an  example  which  should  bt-  avoided. 


456  DATA   COLLECTED 

There  are  three  outlets  from  the  Uostou  ami  metropolitan  sewerage  systems  and 
all  are  located  iu  the  outer  harbor.  The  Boston  outlet  is  at  Moon  Island;  the  outlet 
for  the  north  metropolitan  district  is  at  Deer  Island,  and  the  outlet  for  the  high 
level,  or  south  metropolitan  district,  is  at  I'eddocks  Island. 

('audition*  at  the  Boston  Outlets.  At  the  Moon  Island  outlet  about  40,000,000  gal- 
lons are  discharged  from  the  storage  tanks  in  about  two  hours  on  each  outgoing  tide. 
The  discharge  takes  place _at  the  surface  of  the  water  .  The  harbor  becomes  discolored 
over  an  area  of  about  1,000  acres. 

At  the  Deer  Island  outlet  a  continuous  flow  of  48,000,000  to  72,000,000  gallons  of 
sewage  a  day  covers  an  area,  at  the  ebb  tide,  about  one  and  one-quarter  miles  in  length 
by  two-fifths  of  a  mile  in  width  at  the  widest  place.  The  outlet  is  at  low  water  or  a 
little  below  it.  Under  average  conditions  the  area  covered  is  about  250  acres. 

The  Peddocks  Island  outlets  are  located  iu  a  deep  tidal  channel  where  the  cur- 
rent flows  at  a  maximum  velocity  of  nearly  four  miles  per  hour.  The  Moon  Island 
and  Deer  Island  outlets  discharge  into  maximum  current  velocities  of  about  two  and 
four  miles  per  hour  respectively.  The  sewage  rises  rapidly  from  a  depth  of  30  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  harbor  water  at  low  tide  and  is  imperfectly  dispersed  and 
diluted  before  it  reaches  the  top. 

Immediately  over  the  outlet  on  an  occasion  when  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Com- 
missioners of  New  York  visited  it,  the  sewage  boiled  up  like  a  large  spring,  the  agita- 
tion being  violent  over  a  circular  area  of  a  diameter  of  15  feet.  The  odor 
was  noticeable  at  a  distance  of  500  or  GOO  feet  from  the  outlet.  The  quantity  of  sewage 
being  discharged  on  this  occasion  was  about  40,000,000  gallons  per  day  and  the  popu- 
lation served  about  400,000.  The  sewage  had  been  passed  through  deposit  sewers  and 
coarse  screens  to  take  out  such  suspended  matters  as  could  be  removed  in  this  way  be- 
fore the  sewage  was  discharged  into  the  harbor. 

The  water  in  the  vicinity  of  the  outlet  had  a  grayish  appearance.  There  was 
much  floating  matter  consisting  of  balls  of  grease,  scum,  shreds  of  paper  and  similar 
refuse  which  could  be  seen  for  several  hundred  feet  from  the  outlet  in  all  directions, 
and  on  the  leeward  side  of  the  outlet,  1,000  feet  away.  The  sleek  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  was  plainly  noticeable  for  at  least  one  mile  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
tidal  current  was  running.  The  location  of  the  outlet  was  indicated  by  the  smooth- 
ness of  the  water  and  by  a  flock  of  gulls  which  hovered  about  it, 

Ascent  of  Seicage  in  New  York  Harbor.,  From  a  theoretical  standpoint  It  is 
evident  that  diffusion  between  two  such  liquids  as  sewage  and  harbor  water  may  be 
materially  affected  by  the  difference  in  specific  gravity  which  exists  between  the  two. 
Some  idea  of  the  extent  of  this  effect  can  be  had  from  the  fact  that  a  cubic  foot  of  land 


Interior  of  the  Commission's  Main  Laboratory.     Here  such  analytical  work  was  done  as  could 
not  be  carried  out  on  the  floating  laboratory 


\ 


Tender  Used  in  Experiments  on  Diffusion  and  Float  Observations.       With  a  double  crew  and  force  of 
observers  the  floats  were  followed  continuously  night  and  day 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  457 

water  is  about  one  and  three-quarters  pounds  lighter  thuii  an  equal  volume  of  sea 
water,  lu  cousequeuce  of  this  difference,  every  cubic  foot  of  sewage  which  is  dis- 
charged beneath  the  surface  of  sea  water  will  be  urged  toward  the  top  with  a  force  of 
about  one  and  three-quarters  pounds.  The  upward  moving  force  is  less  than  that 
stated  according  to  the  proportion  of  land  water  to  sea  water  which  is  present  in 
the  harbor. 

It  is  possible  to  approximately  express  the  rising  velocity  of  a  volume  of  sewage 
discharged  beneath  the  surface  of  a  quiet  body  of  water  of  greater  specific  gravity  by 
the  mathematical  formula 


V  =  K  V  2gh 

in  which  V  is  the  velocity  of  the  ascending  sewage,  and  h  is  the  head  corresponding  to 
the  buoying  force.  From  this  formula  it  is  evident  that  the  rate  of  ascent  varies  as  the 
square  of  the  difference  in  specific  gravity.  An  important  point  to  remember  here  is 
that  the  velocity  of  ascent  will  be  doubled  when  the  buoying  force  is  multiplied  four 
times. 

It  is  impracticable  to  calculate  the  velocity  of  ascent  Jby  means  of  this  or  any 
other  formula  without  knowing  the  shape  of  the  ascending  column  of  sewage.  The  rate 
of  ascent  will  depend  upon  the  frictional  resistance  which  the  ascending  column  of 
sewage  offers  to  the  surrounding  body  of  water  and,  consequently  the  shape  of  that 
column  must  be  known  in  order  to  calculate  the  rate. 

Flotation  Experiments  With  Solid  Objects.  In  order  to  get  a  better  idea  of  the  rate 
of  ascent  of  sewage  in  harbor  water  a  series  of  experiments  was  made  by  the  Metro- 
politan Commission  with  solid  wooden  balls  released  at  a  sufficient  depth  beneath  the 
surface  of  a  quiet  body  of  water  to  enable  the  rate  of  ascent  to  be  noted  accurately. 

The  balls  were  about  four  inches  in  diameter.  They  were  coated  with  shellac  so 
as  to  be  impervious  to  water  and  were  weighted  so  as  to  have  the  specific  gravity  of  land 
Avater.  Four  series  of  experiments,  including  the  observation  of  18  balls,  were  made 
in  mixtures  of  land  and  harbor  water  with  the  following  results:  The  rate  of  ascent 
was  0.30  feet  per  second  in  75  per  cent,  land  water,  0.45  feet  per  second  in  44  per  cent, 
land  water  and  0.50  feet  per  second  in  1G  per  cent,  land  water.  These  rates  probably 
show  the  maximum  velocity  which  can  safely  be  expected  when  the  rising  substance  is 
sewage. 

Experiments  on  the  Ascent  und  Diffusion  of  One  Liquid  in  Another.  A  number 
of  experiments  were  made  by  the  Metropolitan  Commission  to  obtain  practical  infor- 
mation concerning  the  circumstances  under  which  sewage  would  and  would  not  dif- 
fuse in  harbor  water.  In  general  the  method  used  in  making  these  experiments  was 
as  follows.  The  water  or  sewage  to  be  discharged  was  strongly  colored  with  a  dye. 


458  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  discharge  was  then  regulated  to  take  place  in  a  continuous  stream  under  prear- 
ranged conditions  as  to  velocity  and  volume  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  with 
which  it  was  to  diffuse.  The  discharging  current  having  been  made  visible  by  the  dye 
it  only  remained  to  study  the  phenomena  of  diffusion  by  observing  the  colored  water. 

Various  dyes  were  experimented  with  in  order  to  determine  the  most  suitable  for 
this  use.  It  was  desirable  that  the  dye  should  be  not  only  bright  and  clear  when 
mixed  with  sewage  or  water  but  it  should  not  be  so  altered  in  color  through  dilution 
or  through  chemical  action  with  matters  present  either  in  the  sewage  or  the  water 
into  which  the  sewage  was  discharged  as  to  become  indistinguishable.  It  was  neces- 
sary that  it  should  not  add  materially  to  the  specific  gravity  of  the  water.  The  dye 
should  not  cause  a  precipitation  of  any  of  the  matters  with  which  it  came  in  contact 
and  it  should  not  be  so  expensive  as  to  preclude  its  use  on  a  large  scale. 

After  many  tests  two  dyes,  one  known  as  urauiue  and  the  other  special  scarlet, 
were  selected.  The  urauiue,  a  sodium  salt  of  tiuorescin,  was  found  to  be  particularly 
suitable.  This  dye  could  be  detected  by  sight  in  dilutions  of  one  to  30  million  parts 
of  water.  When  a  bucketful  of  dyed  sewage  was  thrown  upon  the  surface  of  the 
harbor  it  could  be  seen  at  a  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  It  might  remain  visible 
for  20  minutes  or  more. 

The  quantities  of  colored  water  or  sewage  discharged  varied  between  300  gallons 
and  56,000  gallons  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  experiment.  The  harbor  water 
varied  somewhat  in  salinity.  It  usually  contained  about  25  per  cent,  land  water  and 
75  per  cent,  sea  water. 

The  current  into  which  the  water  or  sewage  was  discharged  varied  from  a  little 
less  than  one  foot  per  second  to  three  feet  per  second. 

Most  of  the  large  scale  experiments  were  carried  on  near  Bobbins  Reef  in  Upper 
New  York  bay.  A  few  were  made  near  Mt.  St.  Vincent  in  the  Hudson  river  and  three 
were  carried  on  at  the  Sound  entrance  to  the  East  river  near  Stepping  Stones  Light. 

In  all  the  experiments  the  specific  gravity  and  temperature  of  the  sewage  and 
water  dealt  with  were  determined  by  a  saliuometer  devised  by  the  commission.  The 
details  of  each  experiment  were  timed  and  recorded.  Sketches  were  made  with  suit- 
able measurements  to  show  the  adjustment  of  apparatus  and  the  phenomena  observed. 
Each  experiment  was  carefully  and  fully  reported  with  the  inferences  and  opinions 
which  it  seemed  safe  to  draw  from  the  results. 

The  first  experiments  were  made  in  the  Commission's  laboratory  upon  a  small 
scale.  Later,  in  order  to  carry  out  these  experiments  on  a  larger  scale,  a  tank  courte- 
ously placed  at  the  Commission's  disposal  by  the  management  of  the  New  York 
Aquarium  was  used.  The  Aquarium  tank  measured  eight  feet  in  length,  four  feet  in 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  459 

depth  and  four  feet  in  width.  It.  had  a  plate  glass  side  through  which  the  phenomena 
of  diffusion  and  other  conditions  in  the  tank  could  be  observed.  The  tank  was  sup- 
plied with  land  water  and  harbor  water,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  experi- 
ment. 

The  experiments  on  the  largest  scale  were  made  with  boatloads  of  dyed  water 
and  dved  sewage.  The  dyed  water  was  contained  in  casks  of  several  hundred  gallons 
capacity.  Three  of  these  casks  were  located  upon  the  Commission's  floating  laboratory 
and  connected  with  a  steam  pump  which  was  capable  of  discharging  the  dye  through  a 
suitable  hose  at  any  required  depth. 

In  one  instance  a  small  tank  steamer  was  used  and  in  another  a  pontoon  holding 
00,000  gallons  with  an  eight-inch  centrifugal  pump  were  employed.  In  these  largest 
scale  experiments  most  of  the  Commission's  employees  took  part  as  observers.  Most 
of  the  observers  were  located  on  boats  which  were  used  in  carrying  on  the  experi- 
ments, but  in  some  cases  an  observer  was  placed  upon  a  lighthouse  or  other  point  of 
vantage  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  water  in  order  to  observe  any  effects 
which  might  escape  the  observers  closer  at  hand.  The  total  number  of  experiments 
made  was  103.  Of  these,  G6  were  on  a  large  scale. 

Facts  and  Opinions  Dratcn  from  the  Experiment.  Following  are  some  of  the 
principal  facts  and  deductions  drawn  from  these  studies. 

Sewage  when  discharged  into  sea  water  rises  in  a  mass  unless  intermixed  through 
the  mechanical  action  of  currents. 

Sewage  rises  through  sea  water  because  of  the  difference  in  specific  gravity  be- 
tween the  two  liquids.  Differences  in  temperature  produce  differences  in  specific  grav- 
ity, and  it  is  this  latter  difference  which  need  alone  be  considered  in  studying  the 
conditions  under  which  sewage  Avill  rise. 

Sewage  appears  to  be  practically  in  equilibrium  when  discharged  into  a  mixture 
of  about  85  per  cent,  land  water  and  15  per  cent,  sea  water,  that  is,  it  will  not  rise 
or  fall  through  the  water  into  which  it  is  discharged. 

When  sewage  is  allowed  to  stand  at  the  top  of  a  perfectly  quiet  body  of  water 
diffusion  occurs  at  once  if  the  water  is  land  water,  but  not  until  after  48  hours  if  the 
water  is  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  land  water  and  sea  water. 

When  sewage  is  discharged  through  an  orifice  into  and  beneath  the  surface  of  a 
quiet  body  of  water  currents  are  set  up  in  the  latter  which  help  produce  an  intermix- 
ture between  the  two  fluids.  The  force  of  these  currents  varies  directly  with  the  veloc- 
ity of  the  discharging  current  and  the  volume  of  discharge. 

Sewage  discharged  through  an  orifice  into  and  beneath  the  surface  of  a  quiet  body 
of  water  of  the  same  specific  gravity  does  not  mingle  instantaneously  with  the  surround- 


4f>0  DATA   COLLECTED 

ing  water.  Some  diffusion  takes  place  from  the  outside  edges  of  the  discharging  stream 
but  intermixture  proceeds  chiefly  after  the  discharging  stream  has  lost  its  initial 
velocity.  In  other  words,  time  is  an  important  factor  in  the  mixing  process. 

If  directed  vertically  upward,  the  discharging  stream  flows  toward  the  top  in  a 
gradually  enlarging  column.  At  the  top  the  sewage  spreads  out  thinly  upon  the  sur- 
face. Diffusion  gradually  takes  place  downward  from  the  surface. 

If  discharged  horizontally,  the  inflowing  sewage  at  first  preserves  its  integrity  for 
a  considerable  distance,  depending  upon  the  initial  velocity  at  the  orifice,  and  then 
rising  upward  spreads  out  in  a  layer  at  the  surface.  Diffusion  takes  place  in  this  case 
downward  from  the  gradually  enlarged  column  and  from  the  surface  layer. 

Sewage  discharged  into  a  quiet  body  of  harbor  water  consisting  of  40  per  cent, 
land  water  and  60  per  cent,  sea  water  rises  toward  the  surface,  irrespective  of  the 
direction  of  discharge  from  the  orifice,  and  spreads  out  upon  the  surface  in  a  large 
thin  layer.  Discharged  in  a  horizontal  direction,  at  a  velocity  of  one  and  one-third 
feet  per  second,  the  upward  motion  is  not  retarded  perceptibly. 

The  inflowing  volume  is  larger  and  longer  when  the  discharge  is  horizontal  than 
when  the  discharge  is  upward  or  downward,  and  for  this  reason  a  horizontal  dis- 
charge of  sewage  facilitates  diffusion. 

Of  the  60  large-scale  experiments  about  one-half  were  successful  in  showing  con- 
ditions which  should  be  avoided  in  discharging  sewage  beneath  the  surface  of  harbor 
water.  In  29  cases  the  sewage  came  at  once  to  the  surface;  in  31  cases  no  effect  was 
visible;  in  six  cases  the  result  was  doubtful.  The  sewage  was  discharged  at  depths 
varying  between  five  and  62  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 

In  one  case,  at  Bobbins  Reef,  when  000  gallons  of  water  were  discharged  at  a 
depth  of  40  feet  into  a  current  of  one  foot  per  second  it  came  to  the  surface.  In 
another  instance  when  15,600  gallons  were  discharged  at  the  same  place  and  under 
what  seemed  to  be  similar  conditions  it  did  not  appear  at  the  surface. 

The  sewage  used  in  the  experiments  just  described  was  obtained  at  the  month  of 
one  of  the  principal  sewers  of  New  York.  The  water  in  all  but  the  large-scale  experi- 
ments was  taken  from  the  City  of  New  York  public  water  supply;  that  used  in  the 
experiments  where  boatloads  were  employed  was  from  the  public  drinking  water  sup- 
plies of  Communipaw,  N.  J.,  and  Stapleton,  8.  I. 

There  was  nothing  unusual  about  the  sewage  employed  to  distinguish  it  from 
other  samples  of  fresh,  normal  sewage  which  might  have  been  obtained  in  this  or  any 
other  American  city.  Such  differences  as  might  exist  between  the  sewage  and  clean 
water,  which  was  sometimes  used  in  the  experiments  in  place  of  sewage,  could  affect 
the  results  only  in  so  far  as  they  altered  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluids  considered. 


DIFFUSION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  SEWAGE  461 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  samples  of  sewage  and  water  experimented  with  as  sewage 
was  the  same  in  every  case. 

The  grease  and  gas  which  would  help  carry  sewage  to  the  surface  and  the  solid 
and  semi-solid  matters  which  would  help  take  it  down  were  not  taken  into  account  in 
these  experiments.  These  substances  were  too  variable  and  uncertain  in  composition 
and  ert'ect  to  reckon  with.  At  the  same  time  it  is  evident  that  in  some  cases  the  gas 
produced  or  entrained  in  sewage  may  exert  a  decided  effect  in  carrying  sewage  to  the 
top  of  a  natural  body  of  water  below  whose  surface  the  sewage  is  discharged,  while 
the  grease,  not  being  miscible  with  the  water  or  entering  into  chemical  combination 
with  any  of  its  ingredients,  would  rise  to  the  surface  and  remain  there.  In  so  far  as 
these  conditions  would  be  likely  to  affect  the  result  of  the  experiments  they  would 
make  diffusion  more  unsatisfactory  than  the  experiments  indicated. 

DIGESTION 

Digestion  experiments  were  undertaken  in  order  to  show  the  rate  at  which  sewage 
solids  became  liquefied  in  the  harbor  water.  They  showed,  among  other  things,  that  the 
rate  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  water  into  which  the  solids  are  placed.  The 
solids  disappear  more  rapidly  in  polluted  water  than  in  clean  water. 

Conditions  Under  Which  the  Experiments  Were  Made.  The  most  instructive  ex- 
periments, and  the  only  ones  which  need  be  mentioned  here,  Avere  carried  on  by  put- 
ting various  organic  solid  substances  in  receptacles  which  were  then  placed  in  trays, 
with  suitable  weights,  and  sunk  in  the  water.  The  receptacles  were  several 
inches  in  diameter,  made  of  glass  or  metal,  and  were  covered  with  wire  netting  in 
order  to  prevent  the  bodily  removal  of  the  solid  substances  by  fishes.  The  recep- 
tacles, and  the  trays  which  contained  them,  had  sides  high  enough  to  prevent  active 
currents  from  meeting  the  solid  matters  and  yet  not  so  high  as  to  prevent  a  proper 
circulation  of  water.  The  solid  objects  were  allowed  to  remain  submerged  for  varying 
periods  of  time  in  order  to  give  them  a  sufficient  opportunity  to  disappear  by  diges- 
tion. The  experiments  were  carried  on  in  the  New  York  Aquarium  and  in  the  open 
harbor  water  at  the  Battery. 

/•'iicls  and  Opinions  Drawn  from  the  Experiments  on  Digestion.  The  experiments 
carried  on  in  the  relatively  clean  waters  of  the  Aquarium  and  in  the'  polluted  water 
of  the  harbor  gave  different  results.  Objects  of  solid  organic  composition  that  would 
rapidly  decompose  in  sewage,  sewage  sludge  or  water  badly  polluted  by  sewage,  when 
placed  in  comparatively  pure  water  remained  almost  unattacked.  A  period  of  time 
which  was  sufficient  for  the  solids  to  entirely  disappear  in  polluted  water  or  sludge 
was  insufficient  to  produce  visible  effect  when  placed  in  clean  water. 


402  DATA   COLLECTED 

Much  of  the  organic  matter  placed  in  (lie  water  at  the  Battery  became  com- 
pletely decomposed  in  three  or  four  weeks.  Part  of  the  residue  showed  signs  of  begin- 
ning decomposition.  Proteid  and  albuminous  substances  were  most  easily  decomposed 
and  carbohydrates  disappeared  almost  as  readily.  Fats  were  not  much  changed  and 
bones  and  eggshells  were  unchanged.  Glumes  and  fibrous  matters  seemed  to  be  in 
almost  the  same  condition  as  when  put  into  the  water  and  the  same  was  true  of  hair. 
Hemp,  cotton  and  wool  fibres  were  broken  up  into  liner  pieces,  but  otherwise  un- 
changed. Human  feces  entirely  disappeared  as  such.  Tissue  toilet  paper  was  com- 
pletely dissolved  in  three  weeks.  Newspaper  proved  very  resistant  and  could  plainly 
be  distinguished  at  the  end  of  three  months. 

During  the  course  of  the  experiments  it  was  found  that  sewage  sludge  deposited 
from  the  water  into  the  receptacles  which  were  placed  in  the  harbor  water  at  the 
Battery.  The  sludge  was  soft  and  oozy  at  the  surface  and  more  concentrated 
as  the  depth  increased.  The  top  layer  was  of  a  dirty,  grayish  brown  color.  Below  the 
surface  the  sludge  was  black.  The  difference  in  color  between  the  surface  and  the 
sludge  beneath  the  surface  has  frequently  been  noticed  in  the  Commission's  studies  of 
the  deposits  on  the  bottom  of  New  York  harbor.  The  black  coloration  is  due,  ap- 
parently,  to  the  formation  of  sulphide  of  iron  brought  about  by  the  deoxidation  of  iron 
compounds  by  anaerobic  bacteria.  The  grayish  surface  layer  is  probably  produced  by 
an  oxidation  of  the  inorganic  matters  and  of  the  iron  sulphide.  This  oxidation  is 
caused  by  the  activities  of  bacteria  which  have  the  power  to  abstract  dissolved  oxygen 
from  the  water  and  unite  it  to  partly  mineralized  substances. 


CHAPTER   XI 

RELATION    BETWEEN    THE    POLLUTION    OF    THE    HARBOR 
WATERS    AND    PUBLIC    HEALTH 

SECTION  I 
INFECTION  OF  THE    HARBOR    WATERS 

In  the  following  pages  are  given  data  to  show  the  probability  of  a  connection  be- 
tween the  pollution  of  the  waters  in  the  metropolitan  district  and  the  spread  of  infec- 
tious diseases.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  usually  very  difficult  to  establish  proof  of 
the  development  of  an  individual  case  of  infectious  disease  from  its  cause  much  reli- 
ance must  be  placed  on  observations  of  a  general  nature. 

INFECTIOUS  AND  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT 

In  the  metropolitan  district,  with  its  large  and  cosmopolitan  population,  many 
forms  of  transmissible  disease  are  always  present.  These  are  classified  by  The  City 
of  New  York  Department  of  Health  into  contagious  and  communicable  diseases. 
The  former  are  directly  acquired  by  contact  and  the  latter  more  indirectly  by  the 
contamination  with  specific  germs  of  various  objects  and  of  articles  of  food  and 
drink.  Through  these  agencies  the  germs  may  be  introduced  into  the  human  organ- 
ism and  thereby  cause  disease. 

Greater  New  York.  During  the  year  1908  there  were  reported  to  The  City  of 
New  York  Department  of  Health  87,161  cases  of  contagious  diseases,  including  diph- 
theria and  croup,  measles,  scarlet  fever,  whooping  cough,  chickenpox,  German 
measles  and  mumps.  The  records  of  the  cases  for  that  year  are  shown  in  Table  I. 


464 


DATA    COLLECTED 


TABLE  I 

NUMBER   OF   CASES   OF    CONTAGIOUS    DISEASES   KEPORTED    IN    1908    IN    THE    CITY 

OF  NEW  YORK* 


Borough 

Manhattan 

Brooklyn 

The  Bronx 

Queens 

Richmond 

Total 

Population,  1900  

1,850,093 

1,166,582 

175,422 

152,999 

21,441 

3,847,557 

Diphtheria  and  croup  

10,263 
18,264 
6 
12,057 
467 
2,781 
544 
1,372 

5,451 
8,707 
6 
8,121 
414 
2,045 
152 
489 

1,648 
4,612 
2 
2,529 
133 
710 
53 
40 

885 
1,897 
3 
1,296 
36 
297 
43 
16 

284 
696 

417 
122 
158 
31 
114 

18,531 
34,176 
17 
24,420 
1,172 
5,991 
823 
2,031 

Scarlet  fever  

Whooping  cough  

Totals              

45,754 

25,385 

9,727 

4,473 

1,822 

87,161 

*  Quarterly  reports  of  the  Department  of  Health  of  The  City  of  New  York,  1908. 

Of  these,  the  causative  germ  of  diphtheria  only  has  been  discovered  and  no 
evidence  has  yet  been  published  of  water  borne  epidemics  of  any  of  the  other  diseases 
mentioned,  although  it  is  known  that  both  scarlet  fever  and  diphtheria  have  been 
transmitted  by  milk. 

There  were  also  reported  26,224  cases  of  communicable  diseases,  including  21,782 
of  tuberculosis  of  all  varieties,  3,014  of  typhoid  fever,  402  of  meningitis,  287  of 
malaria,  609  of  erysipelas,  and  130  of  septicaemia.  The  reports  of  typhoid  were  not 
complete. 

The  detailed  data  are  given  in  Table  II. 


Bath  ing  Beaches 
and  Hospitals. 

BATHING   BEACHES  SHOWN  THUS   .«• 

HOSPITALS -.-  "          "  • 

SEWER  OUTLETS i. •» »     -s 


Bathing  Beaches  and  Hospitals.      Many  hospitals  are  located  on  the  waterfront  and  feel  injurious  effects  from 

the  sewage  discharged  into  the  nearby  waters 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH  465 

TABLE  II 

CASES  OP  COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES  REPORTED  AS  TREATED  AT  HOSPITALS  AND  AT  HOME, 

IN  1908,  IN  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 


Tuberculosis 

Home  cases 12,034 

Hospital  cases 3,260 

Typhoid  Fever — 

Home  cases 695 

Hospital  cases 760 

Meningitis — 

Home  cases 129 

Hospital  cases 94 

Malarial  Fever — 

Home  cases 93 

Hospital  cases 49 

Erysipelas — 

Home  cases 225 

Hospital  cases 118 

Septicaemia — 

Home  cases 7 

Hospital  cases 51 

Total  Home  cases 13,183 

Total  Hospital  cases 4,332 

Total  All  cases 17,515 


Borough 


Manhattan       Brooklyn 


3,748 
811 

596 
408 

94 
36 

34 
26 

80 
140 

18 
23 


4,570 
1,444 


6,014 


The  Bronx 


1,188 
203 

176 
114 

16 
10 

38 
6 

8 
9 

10 
11 


1,436 
353 


1,789 


Queens 


168 
34 

99 
101 

10 
2 

12 
23 

15 
1 

0 

7 


304 
168 


472 


Richmond 


200 
136 

26 
39 

8 
3 

6 
0 

8 
5 

0 
3 


248 
186 


434 


Total 


17,338 
4,444 

1,592 
1,422 

257 

145 

183 
104 

336 
273 

35 
95 


19,741 
6,483 


26,224 


Westchester  Comity.  The  sewage  from  that  portion  of  Westchester  County  lying 
within  the  metropolitan  district,  the  population  of  which  was  126,985  in  1905,  drains 
directly  or  indirectly  into  the  harbor  waters  of  New  York.  Records  of  all  the  cases  of 
contagious  and  communicable  diseases  in  this  district  are  not  available,  but  may  be 
estimated  from  the  number  of  deaths  for  the  year  1908,  as  given  in  the  report  of  the 
New  York  State  Department  of  Health  for  that  year.  Assuming  the  mortality  from 
typhoid  as  8  per  cent,  of  the  cases,  scarlet  fever  as  5.5  per  cent.,  measles  as  2.8  per 
cent,  diphtheria  10  per  cent.,  and  pulmonary  tnberculosis  as  each  case  living  at  least 
three  years,  there  should  have  been  in  Westchester  County  approximately  987  cases 


466 


DATA    COLLECTED 


of   typhoid,    1,463   of   scarlet   fever,    1,643    of  measles,  909  of  diphtheria  and  1,857 
of  pulmonary  tuberculosis.     The  detailed  data  are  given  in  Table  III. 

TABLE  III 

NUMBER  OP  DEATHS  AND  ESTIMATED  NUMBER  OF  CASES  OF  COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES  IN 

WESTCHESTER  COUNTY,,  NEW  YORK  IN  1908 


Population 
State  Census, 
1905 

Typhoid 
fever 

Scarlet 
fever 

Measles 

Whooping 
Cough 

Diarrhoea 

Tuberculosis 

Total 

Westchester  County     

28,950 
3,986 
1,863 
25,006 
20,480 
1,840 
1,018 
12,129 
69,503 

60 
1 

2 

7 

2 
7 

45 

4 
4 
1 

1 

24 

28 
4 
5 
6 

1 

2 

13 

4 

3 

332 

8 
2 
39 
21 
3 
1 
12 
147 

410 
4 
10 
35 
24 

2 
18 
116 

888 
17 
17 
90 
57 
4 
3 
33 
299 

Kastchester  

Greenburgh  

Mt   Vernon  

New  Rochelle        

Pelham 

Scarsdale  

White  Plains 

Yonkers  

Total  

164,775 

79 

79 

46 

20 

565 

619 

1,408 

Percentage  Mortality,  the  City  of  Newl 
York,  1908  1 

8* 
987 

5.42 
1,463 

2.8* 
1,643 

2.6* 
769 

32 
1,857 

Estimated  Number  of  cases  i 
tioned  county  and  town 

n  above  men-1 
j.  .              .  .  1 

Nassau  County,  New  York.  There  is  a  small  part  of  Nassau  County,  includ- 
ing the  town  of  North  Hempstead,  which  had  a  population  of  1,411  in  1905,  the 
sewage  of  which  also  drains  into  the  metropolitan  waters. 

New  Jersey.  That  portion  of  New  Jersey  which  lies  within  the  limits  of  the  met- 
ropolitan district,  including  an  area  of  approximately  350  square  miles  in  the  coun- 
ties of  Bergen,  Essex,  Hudson,  Middlesex,  Passaic  and  Union,  had  in  1905  a  popula- 
tion of  1,203,387.  In  these  counties,  in  which  are  situated  Jersey  City,  Hoboken, 
Newark,  Paterson,  Passaic,  Orange,  Elizabeth  and  Kahway,  and  numerous  small 
towns  and  villages,  only  the  number  of  deaths  during  the  year  1907  could  be  ob- 
tained. But  based  on  the  mortality  of  the  various  diseases  assumed  for  New  York 
for  that  year  there  should  have  been  in  these  counties  approximately  2,925  cases  of 
typhoid,  5,318  of  measles,  4,777  of  scarlet  fever,  4,440  of  diphtheria  and  8,904  of  tuber- 
culosis. 

The  detailed  data  are  given  in  Table  IV. 


POLLUTION  OF  HAEBOK  WATERS  AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH          467 

TABLE  IV 

DEATHS   AND   ESTIMATED   NUMBER   OF   CASES    OF    CONTAGIOUS    AND    COMMUNICABLE 
DISEASES  IN  COUNTIES  IN  NEW  JERSEY,  OF  THE  METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT  IN  1907 


Population 
by 
State  Census, 
1905 

Deaths, 
1907 
Typhoid 
fever 

Measles 

Scarlet 
fever 

Whooping 
cough 

Diphtheria 

Tuberculosis 

Total 

Bergen  County 

100,003 
409,928 
449,679 
97,030 
175,038 
117,211 

14 
86 
75 
20 
22 
17 

8 
19 
63 
4 

18 
5 

5 
52 
146 
9 
25 
21 

17 
46 
46 
15 
9 
20 

19 
119 
167 
30 
44 
65 

132 
1,059 
1,113 
141 
302 
221 

195 
1,381 
1,610 
219 
420 
349 

Essex  County  

Middlesex  County  

Total 

1,348,915 

234 

117 

258 

153 

444 

2,968 

4,174 

Mortality,  County  of  New  York,  1907  
Number  of  cases  in  New  Jersey  Counties  . 

8 
2,925 

2.2£ 
5,318 

5A% 
4,777 

2.6% 
5,884 

10* 
4,440 

X3 
8,904 

TUBERCULOSIS  AND  TYPHOID  FEVER 

Means  of  Disinfection.  Although  the  discharges  from  patients  suffering  from  any 
of  the  various  contagious  diseases  may  be  capable  of  transmitting  their  disease,  yet 
little  is  knoAvn  about  the  mode  of  transmission  apart  from  contact. 

In  considering  the  effect  of  the  harbor  waters  on  health  the  two  most  impor- 
tant communicable  diseases  are  tuberculosis  and  typhoid  fever.  Of  the  26,224  cases 
of  communicable  diseases  reported  to  the  New  York  Department  of  Health  in  1908, 
24,796,  or  94  per  cent.,  were  tuberculosis  and  typhoid  fever,  tuberculosis  comprising 
87  per  cent,  of  the  number. 

A  large  amount  of  accurate  knowledge  is  available  as  to  the  method  of  trans- 
mission of  these  diseases.  Tuberculosis  is  caused  by  the  inhalation  of  tubercle  bacilli, 
which  come  from  the  sputum  of  individuals  suffering  from  tuberculosis  and  from  the 
iugestion  of  food  contaminated  with  tubercle  bacilli.  The  tubercle  bacilli  are  found 
in  the  sputum  of  patients  who  have  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  in  the  ft'ccs  of  those  who 
have  intestinal  tuberculosis  and  frequently  in  the  feces  of  those  who  have  pulmonary 
tuberculosis.  Tubercle  bacilli  exist  in  the  urine  of  patients  suffering  from  tubercu- 
losis of  the  genito-urinary  tract.  Typhoid  bacilli  occur  in  the  stools  and  urine  of 
patients  who  have  typhoid  fever,  in  the  stools  and  urine  of  convalescents  from  this 
disease  and  in  the  excretions  of  some  persons  who  are  apparently  in  good  health. 


468  DATA    COLLECTED 


Typhoid  Fever  Death  Rates 

444 

Berlin  Pans  London  New  York 

Berlin  5.0  per  100.000  population    1901-1905 

Paris  12.0    - 

London  14. 3    - 

New  York  17.8    - 

General  Death  Rates 

flYI 

London  Paris  Berlin  NewYork 

London  16.9  per  1.000     population  1900-1904 

Paris  18.2     - 

Berlin  18.3     . 

NewYork  13.4     ••      •• 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH 


469 


Typhoid  fever  is  always  present  in  the  City  of  New  York.  The  death  rate  per 
100,000  inhabitants  from  typhoid  during  the  last  eighteen  years  has  averaged  18.5. 
While  this  figure  is  lower  than  that  for  many  other  American  cities,  it  does  not  com- 
pare favorably  with  the  rate  for  well-regulated  foreign  cities  as  shown  in  Table  V. 


TABLE  V. 

TYPHOID  FEVER  DEATHS  IN  17  CITIES  PER  100,000  LIVING 


Year 

American  Cities 

Foreign  Cities 

Baltimore 

a 
2 

33. 
29.4 
25.6 
23.8 
22.1 
20.5 
23.6 
20.8 
21.6 
10.5 

& 

1 
2a 

o 

Cleveland 

x  \  Indianapolis 

*•  1 

Louisville 

New  York 

Philadelphia 

Pittsburg 

.3 

3 
O 

h-) 

oa 

=>  Washington 

3S 

San  Francisco 

d 
| 

J 

| 

£ 

a 
1 

OS 

a 
J 

Dresden 

1898  

37.1 
30.1 
37.1 
28.7 
42. 
35. 
37.5 
35.7 
34.3 
41.3 

37.6 
26. 
19.9 
29.8 
45.1 
32.1 
20.2 
16.5 
18.3 
17.7 

31.8 

57.7 

20.7 

49.4 

68 

16  5 

16  7 

13 

9  9 

4  3 

6  8 

4  3 

1899  

28.6 

37  8 

59  8 

16  3 

73  4 

106  9 

22  8 

60  7 

51  2 

17  8 

29 

4  1 

4  1 

7  1 

1900 

53.8 
34.9 
35.5 
115. 
49.6 
14.9 
20.2 
18.9 

43.7 
33.1 
44.5 
51.1 
68.4 
30.2 
39.2 
29.4 

57.8 
46. 
60.3 
59.8 
61.6 
49.4 
67.7 
67.9 

20.8 
20.6 
20.3 
17.1 
16.8 
16. 
15.4 
17.5 

34.7 
34.6 
47.3 
72.6 
55. 
51. 
74.8 
60.7 

144.2 
123.8 
140.6 
136.5 
139.4 
107.9 
141.3 
130.8 

29.2 
33.4 
40. 
52.4 
37.9 
22.6 
18.3 
16.3 

77.8 
61.4 
79.1 
48.8 
47. 
48.2 
52.3 
35.5 

41.3 
25.1 
29.6 
25. 
31.4 
23.9 

16.5 
12.1 
12.8 
8.6 
6.2 
5.2 
6. 
4. 

34.6 
13.7 

10.4 
12.2 

11. 
10. 

5.8 
4.7 
2.7 
3.2 
3.7 
5.3 
4. 
4. 

8.3 
4.5 
3. 
3.9 
3.4 
4.4 
5. 
3. 

4.1 
6.4 
4. 
5.3 
2.8 
3.7 
7. 
2. 

1901  

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1900  
1907  

If  New  York's  typhoid  death  rate  seems  low  as  compared  with  the  rates  of  other 
American  cities,  it  appears  high  when  compared  with  the  rates  of  cities  in  northern 
Europe,  as,  for  example,  London,  where  the  average  rate  from  typhoid  fever  from  1898 
to  1907  was  11.5,  Berlin  4.2,  Vienna  4.8  and  Dresden  4.7.  In  Munich,  Hamburg, 
Bremen  and  other  German  cities  the  rates  were  also  far  below  that  of  New  York. 

In  many  European  cities  where  typhoid  formerly  existed  as  it  does  to-day  in 
America  it  has  become  a  rarity.  A  case  of  typhoid  fever  admitted  to  the  large  city 
hospital  in  Munich  in  May,  1909,  the  first  case  of  its  kind  since  the  previous  Septem- 
ber, was  looked  upon  as  a  curiosity. 

The  low  typhoid  rates  of  foreign  cities  means  better  sanitary  conditions  than 
exist  in  the  United  States,  especially  better  water  supplies  and  better  methods  of 
sewage  disposal. 


470  DATA   COLLECTED 

The  4,176  cases  of  typhoid  fever  reported  to  the  Health  Department  of  The  City 
of  New  York  in  1907  were  considered  by  the  Department  to  be  due  to  the  following 
causes : 

CAUSES  OF  TYPHOID  FEVER  IN  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK  ACCORDING  TO  THE  CITY  DEPART- 
MENT OF  HEALTH 

Cases  due  to  water 169 

Cases  due  to  milk 570 

Cases  due  to  oysters 113 

Cases  due  to  exposure  to  other  cases 294 

Cases  due  to  out  of  town 966 

.  Cases  due  to  unknown  causes 2,06 1 


Total    4,176 

Nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  cases  were  acknowledged  to  have  been  caused  by  un- 
known agencies.  It  is  not  known  where  the  oysters  came  from  that  caused  the  113 
cases,  nor  whether  any  of  the  2,064  cases  were  among  persons  who  had  bathed  in  the 
harbor  waters  or  were  otherwise  exposed  to  the  polluted  harbor.  Were  all  the  facts 
in  these  cases  known  it  is  possible  that  many  might  have  been  traced  to  the  harbor 
water. 

Longevity  of  Tubercle  and  Typhoid  Bacilli.  Tubercle  bacilli  have  been  found  to 
remain  virulent  for  from  two  to  ten  months  according  to  Schill  and  Fischer,1  Sormani,2 
Toma3  and  Savitzky.4  In  fluids  the  bacilli  retain  their  virulence  a  shorter 
time.  Schill  and  Fischer  found  that  bacilli  retained  their  virulence  in  decomposing 
sputum  for  43  days.  Galtier 5  found  them  virulent  after  being  two  months  in  water. 
It  has  also  been  found  that  where  there  is  a  large  growth  of  sapropliytic  bacteria  the 
tubercle  bacilli  rapidly  disappear.  Cornet 6  also  found  that  under  a  covering  of  snow, 
and  at  times  with  a  temperature  as  low  as  —  10°  C.,  tubercle  bacilli  retained  their  vital- 
ity as  long  as  six  weeks. 

A  large  number  of  experiments  have  been  made  to  test  the  longevity  of  typhoid 
bacilli  in  drinking  water,  but  as  there  have  also  been  a  number  of  observations  made 
upon  the  viability  of  typhoid  bacilli  in  sewage  and  sea  water,  only  these  will  be  con- 
sidered here.  Giaxa7  found  that  typhoid  bacilli  lived  for  many  days  in  sea  water. 
Boyce  and  Herdman  8  found  that  typhoid  bacilli  would  live  for  a  month  in  sea  water. 
Foster  9  and  Freytag  state  that  "  Typhoid  germs  will  live  for  a  long  time  in  sea  water." 

M.  Kais,  G.  A.  Bd.  II,  1884. 

Italien  d'Igiene,  Anno  VIII,  No.  56. 

Annale  de  Medicin  Vols.  CCLXXV,  p.  3,  and  CCLXXVII,  p.  39,  1886. 

Med.  Chron.,  Nov.  1890,  p.  877,  ibid.  Bd.  XI,  p.  153,  1892. 

Compte  rendre  de  1'  Acad  de  Sc.  Tome  CV,  p.  231. 

Nothnagel's  Encycl.  of  Medicine,  Volume  on  Tuberculosis,  1904. 

British  Medical  Journal,  1895,  Vol.  I,  p.  390. 

Quoted  by  Conn.  Med.  Record,  1894,  Vol.  LXVI,  p.  743. 

Quoted  by  Klein,  see  note  5. 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS  AND  PUBLIC  HEALTH          471 

Lawes  and  Audrewes 10  found  that  typhoid  bacilli  at  20°  C.  would  live  in  sterile 
sewage  about  a  fortnight.  Klein11  found  that  they  would  remain  in  sterile  sewage 
three  weeks,  and  if  nitrates  were  added  they  existed  in  enormous  numbers  for  eight 
weeks.  Jordan,  Russell  and  Zeit12  found  .that  typhoid  bacilli  lived  in  Chicago  drain- 
age canal  water  for  two  days  and  once  for  ten  days.  Russell  and  Fuller  1S  found 
them  alive  in  water  in  which  sewage  was  added  from  three  to  five  days.  McConkey  14 
found  that  typhoid  bacilli  coiild  be  recovered,  after  being  introduced  into  crude 
sewage,  for  six  days,  but  that  they  did  not  multiply  and  died  more  or  less  rapidly. 

There  is  unanimous  opinion  that  typhoid  bacilli  will  live  in  sewage  whether  or 
not  the  sewage  be  sterilized  before  these  germs  are  added;  that  typhoid  bacilli  do  not 
usually  multiply  in  crude  sewage,  but  retain  their  vitality  for  some  days,  and  that 
typhoid  bacilli  may  live  a  considerable  time  in  sea  water. 

Difficulties  of  Disinfection.  Attempts  are  usually  made  in  hospital  practice  to 
disinfect  the  discharges  of  all  patients  suffering  from  contagious  and  communicable 
diseases,  but  it  is  probable  that  these  attempts  are  not  universally  successful. 

The  methods  of  disinfection  used  in  private  homes  are  generally  inadequate.  An- 
drewes  states  that  "  stools  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  disinfecting  solution 
until  no  visible  lumps  remain  and  allowed  to  stand  for  three  hours  before  being 
emptied  into  the  sewer."15 

In  one  of  the  large  hospitals  of  Boston  all  the  stools  and  urine  from  cases  of  in- 
fectious diseases  are  thoroughly  mixed  with  a  disinfecting  solution  and  boiled  before 
being  discharged  into  the  sewer.  Only  by  such  thorough  measures  can  the  infectious 
nature  of  the  dejecta  be  destroyed. 

Pollution  of  Harbor  Waters  ilvroutfh  Undisinfected  Sewage  Wastes.  Of  the  tuber- 
culosis patients  reported  in  the  City  of  New  York  during  the  year  1908,  17,338,  or 
80  per  cent.,  were  treated  at  home.  It  is  not  probable,  except  in  isolated  cases,  that 
the  urine  or  feces  of  these  patients  were  disinfected.  To  some  extent,  however,  the 
sputum  was  disinfected  as  the  result  of  the  recent  educational  campaign  for  the  pre- 
vention of  tuberculosis. 

Unfortunately  many  persons  have  tuberculosis  without  being  aware  of  the  fact 
and  eject  bacilli  unconsciously,  no  attempt  being  made  to  disinfect  the  sputum,  urine 
or  feces.  Similarly,  in  typhoid  fever,  before  the  patient  is  ill  enough  to  be  in  bed,  the 
discharges  become  dangerous  and  are  emptied  into  the  sewers  without  disinfection.  In 
190S  there  were  treated  1,582  cases,  or  52  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  reported,  in 

1    Report  to  London  County  Council,  1900. 

1    24th  Report  of  Local  Government  Board  of  England  Oyster  Culture,  1894. 
1    Journal  of  Infectious  Diseases,  1904, 1,  p.  641. 
1    Journal  of  Infectious  Diseases,  1906,  Suppl.  No.  2. 
1    Report  British  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal  1902. 
»  Lessons  in  Disinfection  and  Sterilization,  Andrewes,  1907 


472  DATA   COLLECTED 

hospitals,  and  it  may  be  assumed  that  at  the  hospitals  the  discharges  were  sometimes 
well  disinfected.  The  other  48  per  cent,  were  treated  at  home,  and  with  the  difficulties 
and  extra  labor  needed  for  the  disinfection  of  the  discharges,  disinfection  was  prac- 
tised either  in  a  partial  and  perfunctory  manner  or  not  at  all.  Further,  during  con- 
valescence, virulent  typhoid  bacilli  may  be  discharged  in  the  urine  and  feces  and  this 
condition  may  persist  after  the  return  to  health  of  the  individual. 

In  1905  and  1906  it  was  pointed  out  by  a  number  of  German  investigators  that 
virulent  typhoid  bacilli  could  be  carried  in  the  intestinal  and  urinary  tract  of  numer- 
ous healthy  individuals.  In  1907  Soper  reported  in  the  Journal  of  the  American 
Medical  Association  J  the  now  famous  case  of  a  household  servant  who  had  been  the 
cause  of  20  cases  of  typhoid  fever,  one  of  which  resulted  fatally. 

Graham,  Overlander  and  Dealy  reported  in  the  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical 
Journal2  that  they  had  found  in  the  discharges  of  65  convalescent  typhoid  fever 
patients  about  to  be  released  from  the  Boston  City  Hospital,  active  bacilli  in  15  cases, 
or  23  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number.  It  is  probable  that  more  typhoid  germs  are 
produced  by  bacillus  carriers  than  by  persons  sick  in  bed.  These  bacillus  producers 
add  to  the  quantity  of  infectious  material  which  the  sewers  discharge  into  the  harbor. 

Genito-Urinary  Diseases.  Besides  the  diseases  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graphs there  are  a  large  number  of  persons  in  New  York  afflicted  with  Inflammations 
of  the  genito-nrinary  tract;  30,000  such  cases  yearly  would  be  a  low  estimate.  In  such 
inflammations  there  is  a  chronic  discharge  of  pus  in  the  urine  accompanied  with  the 
ordinary  pyogenic  bacteria,  the  streptococci  and  staphylococci,  and  also  with  the  or- 
ganisms which  cause  the  specific  venereal  diseases.  Almost  all  the  people  with  these 
infections  are  up  and  about  during  the  course  of  the  disease,  and  the  disinfection  of 
the  urine  being  accompanied  with  some  trouble  it  is  generally  not  attempted. 

SECTION  II 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  POLLUTED  HAKBOR  WATERS  ON  PUBLIC  HEALTH 
THROUGH  THE  CONSUMPTION    OF    SHELLFISH 

In  New  York  State.  In  19043  there  was  invested  in  the  fish  industry  in  New  York 
State  the  sum  of  $10,621,616.  The  catch  amounted  to  277,649,747  pounds,  having  a 
sale  value  of  $6,230,558  and  giving  employment  to  11,493  men. 

The  shellfish  industry  in  New  York  amounted  to  3,843,846  bushels,  composed  of 
oysters,  clams,  mussels,  scallops  and  empty  shells.  These  products  brought  $4,310,819, 
or  69  per  cent,  of  the  total  value  of  the  fishing  industry  in  this  State. 

1  Vol.  48, J).  2019. 
»  Vol.  CLX,  p.  38. 
«  Dept.  Commerce  aud  Labor,  Statistics  of  Fish  for  the  Middle  Atlantic  States. 


Bathing  in  Lower  Xew  York  Bay.     Large  numbers  of  people  bathe  in  the  waters  of  New  York  in  the  summer 


A  Bathing  Beach  in  L'pper  New  York  Bay.     Many  people,  especially  children,  use  the  polluted  teaches  near  home 

for  shore  baths 


POLLUTION  OF  HAHBOK  WATERS   AND  PUBLIC   HEALTH  473 


The  Shaded  Areas  Indicate  the  Principal  Sources  of  Oysters 


POLLUTION  OF  HAKBOK  WATEHS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH  473 


v  v\ 

^v> 


The  Shaded  Areas  Indicate  the  Principal  Sources  of  Oysters 


474  DATA   COLLECTED 

In  19081  there  were  produced  2,647,500  bushels  of  clams  and  oysters  which  brought 
a  revenue  to  their  owners  of  $2,844,070.2  For  the  same  year,  according  to  the  report 
of  the  Bureau  of  Marine  Fisheries,3  there  were  1,794,077  bushels  of  clams  and  oysters 
sent  to  New  York  markets.  The  total  value  of  the  shellfish  including  seed  oysters 
amounted  to  $2,205,540.62. 

Taking  the  figures  of  the  Census  Bureau  the  total  value  of  the  catch  for  1908 
was  $4,592,440.  The  value  of  the  shellfish  was  $2,844,070  or  60  per  cent,  of  the  total. 
The  shellfish  business  was  by  far  the  most  most  important  branch  of  the  industry. 

In  New  Jersey*  The  amount  of  capital  invested  in  the  fish  industry  in  New 
Jersey  in  1904  was  $2,695,796,  and  the  total  value  of  the  catch  was  $3,385,415.  The 
total  amount  of  fish  was  90,108,068  pounds.  The  shellfish  industry  amounted  to  2,541,- 
793  bushels  valued  at  $2,122,296,  or  60  per  cent,  of  the  total.  In  19085  the  total  value 
was  $3,068,590,  the  shellfish  amounting  to  2,892,200  bushels  valued  at  $1,705,000,  55 
per  cent,  of  the  total. 

The  shellfish  industry  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  is  of  peculiar  interest  because 
of  the  great  value  of  the  industry  in  these  two  states  and  on  account  of  the  dissemi- 
nation of  disease  by  the  handling  and  eating  of  sewage  polluted  shellfish. 

Oysters  and  Clams  from  the  Metropolitan  Waters.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
shellfish  industry,  95  per  cent,  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  consists  of  the  oyster 
trade,  and  what  is  true  of  the  ways  in  which  oysters  may  produce  disease  is,  to  a  lesser 
extent,  true  of  other  shellfish.  Oysters  only  will  be  considered  here. 

In  a  report  to  the  New  York  Bay  Pollution  Commission  is  the  following  state- 
ment :e  "The  upper  part  of  New  York  bay  once  supported  oyster  beds  which  extended 
from  Staten  Island  to  above  Newburgh.  Bedloes  Island,  now  called  Liberty  Island, 
was  known  as  Oyster  Island,  and  two  small  reefs  just  south  of  it  were  called  the  Little 
Oyster  Islands.  The  oysters  occurred  here  naturally  and  were  reckoned  a  consider- 
able source  of  wealth.  They  were  so  plentiful  that  the  public  was  allowed  to  gather 
them  with  little  or  no  restriction,  until  to-day  these  extensive  grounds  have  become 
exhausted." 

Other  natural  oyster  grounds  exist  on  the  Jersey  Flats,  Raritan  and  Princess 
bays,  Jamaica  bay,  the  mouth  of  the  Shrewsbury,  Arthur  Kill,  Newark  bay,  Eastches- 
ter  and  Pelhani  bays  and  in  most  other  salt  water  estuaries  in  the  metropolitan  dis- 
trict. 

1  Dept.  Commerce  and  Labor,  Bureau  of  Census,  Preliminary  Report. 

*  Includes  scallops. 

1  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  New  York,  Bureau  of  Marine  Fisheries. 
4  Statistics  Middle  Atlantic  States. 

•  Bureau  of  Census,  Preliminary  Reports. 

«  Soper,  New  York  Bay  Pollution  Commission  Report,  March,  31,  1903. 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH  475 

Comparatively  few  oysters  are  now  taken  from  the  natural  reefs,  there  having 
been  gathered  but  20,805  bushels  in  1904  while  2,847,702  bushels  were  taken  in  the 
same  year  from  private  areas.  These  private  areas  are  State  land  under  water  leased 
for  a  term  of  years  at  a  nominal  sum  per  acre.  Such  growth  of  the  oyster  business 
as  has  recently  occurred  has  been  mainly  on  the  eastern  end  of  Long  Island. 

Of  the  1,794,077  bushels  of  shellfish  received  at  the  New  York  markets  during 
1908  747,127  bushels  came  from  beds  within  the  metropolitan  district;  160,400  bushels 
came  from  within  the  limits  of  The  City  of  New  York.  From  the  Raritan  and  Prin- 
cess bays,  south  of  Staten  Island,  came  33,200  bushels,  and  from  Jamaica  bay  came 
127,000  bushels. 

According  to  estimates  made  by  the  New  York  Bureau  of  Marine  Fisheries  these 
747,127  bushels  had  a  value  of  f  965,000.  This  is  34  per  cent,  of  the  total  value  of  the 
shellfish  industry  in  New  York  for  1908. 

The  total  value  of  the  catch  of  the  shellfish  industry  for  New  Jersey  for  1908  was 
$2,122,296. 

The  value  of  the  clams  and  oysters  produced  in  the  New  Jersey  counties  of  the 
metropolitan  district  in  1908  were  as  given  in  Table  VI. 

TABLE  VI 

VALUE  or  SHELLFISH  PRODUCED  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT 


County 

Clams 

Oysters 

Total 

Bergen  

Hudson  

$20,300 

$20,300 

Middlesex  

$13,750 

49,340 

63,090 

Monmoutli  

211,785 

69,858 

281,643 

Union  

6,240 

6,240 

Total  

$225  535 

$145  738 

$371  273* 

*StatlstiC3  of  the  fisheries  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  for  1904,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 

Thus  the  value  of  the  shellfish  produced  in  1908  in  the  harbor  waters  of  the 
metropolitan  district  amounted  to 

New  York f  965,600  84 

New  Jersey  371,273  00 


A  total  of 11,336,873  84 


This  does  not  include  the  value  of  the  shore  properties,  boats  and  implements  in- 
vested in  the  business. 


470  DATA   COLLECTED 

Some  oysters  and  large  numbers  of  clams  are  taken  from  natural  grounds  by 
individuals  for  their  own  consumption.  The  number  of  shellfish  taken  and  the  num- 
ber of  persons  so  engaged  is  not  mentioned  in  any  of  the  reports.  These  persons  take 
clams  and  oysters  from  natural  grounds  apparently  not  under  the  surveillance  of 
the  Bureau  of  Marine  Fisheries. 

Oysters  and  Clams  in  Polluted  Waters.  The  Bureau1  of  Marine  Fisheries  of  New 
York  State  in  its  report  for  1908  states  "  that  it  is  now  unlawful  to  place  or  allow 
to  run  into  waters  in  the  vicinity  of  oyster  beds  any  sewage,  sludge,  acid  or  refuse, 
or  any  substance  injurious  to  oyster  culture,  and  upon  it  appearing  that  oyster  beds 
have  become  polluted  from  one  or  more  of  these  causes  it  becomes  the  duty  of  this 
Bureau  to  cause  complaint  to  be  made  in  a  criminal  action  against  the  person  or  per- 
sons so  offending.  Such  person  is  also  liable  in  damages  to  the  persons  injured.  It 
will  at  once  be  appreciated  that  the  vast  amount  of  sewage,  said  to  be  five  hundred 
millions  of  gallons  every  24  hours,  emptied  into  our  tidal  waters  by  The  City  of  New 
York  is  the  most  serious  existing  cause  of  pollution.  In  consequence  of  this  situa- 
tion, no  oysters  for  use  as  food  are  taken  from  Neic  York  bay,  nor  have  any  oysters 
for  the  markets  been  taken  from  these  icaters  during  the  history  of  the  Shellfisheries 
Department  of  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission."  In  spite  of  this  official 
declaration,  during  1908  and  1909  oysters  were  taken  from  natural  beds  off  Bobbins 
Keef.  This  was  seen  by  members  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission. 
Oysters  in  large  numbers  are  still  taken  from  the  south  shore  of  Staten  Island  in 
the  Lower  bay.  The  limits  of  New  York  bay  in  the  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Marine 
Fisheries  are  not  defined;  presumably  the  Upper  bay  only  is  meant.  Nevertheless, 
the  Bureau  should  be  aware  of  the  fact  that  oysters  have  been,  until  very  recent  years 
at  least,  not  only  grown  in  New  York  bay  but  drinked  in  that  grossly  polluted  part 
of  New  York  harbor  known  as  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  in  the  worse  polluted  waters  of 
the  Rahway  river  before  being  brought  to  the  city  markets. 

Soft  clams  abound  along  the  shores  of  Jamaica  bay,  the  waters  of  which  have 
been  shown  to  be  sewage  polluted.  For  the  most  part  these  soft  clams  are  taken  by 
various  persons  for  their  home  use.  In  the  summer,  at  low  tide,  dozens  of  people  can 
be  seen  clam  digging  in  Jamaica  bay.  It  is  obvious  that  many  of  the  clams  so  taken 
may  be  given  or  sold  to  friends  in  the  neighborhood.  Soft  clams  are  also  taken  in 
Newark  bay,  Arthur  Kill,  the  Rahway  river  and  off  City  Island  and  sold. 

Hard  clams  are  gathered  just  outside  the  Narrows  near  Sandy  Hook  and  in  the 
East  river  between  Throgg  Neck  and  Hell  Gate. 

1  Report  of  Bureau  of  Marine  Fisheries,  1908. 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS  AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH  477 


ANNUAL  CATCH  OF  SHAD 
IN    POUNDS 


NEW      YORK 


I  J6.250.558 


14.532.440 


$4,510.819 


12,844.070 


TOTAL  FISHERIES  SHELL  FISHERIES 

NEW         YORK 


J3.38S.4IS 

1 1061590 


TOTAL  FISHERIES  SHELL  FISHERIES 

NEW       JERSEY 


DECREASE     IN     VALUE    OF 
TOTAL  CATCH   OF    FISH   AND  SHELL    FISH 


478 


DATA   COLLECTED 


All  of  these  regions  have  been  shown  to  be  polluted,  although  the  Sandy  Hook 
grounds  are  the  cleanest. 

THE  SHAD  FISHERIES 

Value  of  the  Catch.  The  shad  fishing  industry  in  the  metropolitan  district  de- 
pends upon  the  annual  migration  of  the  shad,  clupia  sapidissima,  from  the  sea  up 
the  Hudson  river  to  spawn.  This  industry  has  been  of  considerable  value  to  the 
counties  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  which  have  shores  upon  the  Hudson  river. 

The  stake  gill  net  is  used  for  catching  shad,  but  owing  to  the  alleged  menace  of 
the  nets  to  navigation  the  Government  has  placed  some  restriction  upon  these  operations. 
The  value  of  the  shad  catch  in  New  Jersey  in  1904  was  $238,517  and  in  1908  f  229,490.  The 
amount  of  the  catch  in  1908  was  25  per  cent,  less  than  in  1904. 

In  New  York  there  has  also  been  a  diminution  in  the  amount  and  value  of  the 
shad  catch.  In  the  '80's  and  '90's  the  shad  catch  averaged  from  three  to  five  million 
pounds;  in  1901  it  was  3,432,472;  in  1904,  498,119,  and  in  1908,  359,900.  In  1901 
the  value  was  $110,682;  in  1904,  $38,826,  and  in  1908,  $27,410.  See  Table  VII. 


TABLE  VII 
ANNUAL  CATCH  OF  SHAD  IN  NEW  YORK  AND  NEW  JERSEY 


Year 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Number  of  Fish 

Weight  in 
Pounds 

Value 

Weight  in 
Pounds 

Value 

1880  

639,000* 
1,174,835* 
1,200,949* 
1,155,610* 
588,898* 

2,236,500f 
4,lll,922t 
4,553,321f 
4,044,635t 
2,011,143t 
3,432,472$ 
498,1  19J 
359,900§ 

$136,680 

749,997 

$35,000* 

1885  

1888  

1895  

1896  

83,237 
110,682$ 
38,826t 
27,410§ 

ll,684,480t 
13,993,233$ 
4,337,9071 
3,004,200 

340,056* 
769,450} 
238,517t 
229,490§ 

1901  

1904  

1908  

*  Figures  given  by  C.  H.  Stevenson,  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  Report,  1898. 

t  Number  of  fish  times  average  weight  'A%  Ibs.  (Stevenson's  figures,  i 

t  Statistics  of  Fisheries  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  1904. 

5  Preliminary  Reports,  Bureau  of  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  1908. 


POLLUTION  OP  HARBOR  WATERS  AND  PUBLIC  HEALTH 


479 


The  shad  catch  in  the  counties  of  The  City  of  New  York  in  1901  and  1904  was 

as  given  in  Table  VIII. 

TABLE  VIII 

CATCH  OF  SHAD  BY  COUNTIES  OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 


1901 
Pounds 


1904 
Pounds 


1901 
Value 


1904 
Value 


New  York  County. 
Kings  County  .... 
Richmond  County . 


5,600 

45,975 

118,700 


2,840 
17,260 
62,840 


$250 
2,715 
6,360 


$280 
1,384 
5,051 


170,275 


82,940 


$9,325 


$6,715 


*  Fisheries  Middle  Atlantic  States,  1904,  Dept.  Commerce  and  Labor. 

The  value  and  amount  of  the  shad  catch  in  the  counties  of  New  York  State  was 
as  given  in  Table  IX. 

TABLE  IX 
CATCH  OF  SHAD  BY  COUNTIES  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE  IN  1904 


1904 


Pounds 


Value 


Albany 

Columbia. .  .  . 
Dutchess 

Greene 

Kings 

New  York . . . 

Orange 

Putnam 

Rensselaer. .. 
Richmond .  .  . 
Rockland. . . . 

Suffolk 

Ulster 

Westchester . 

Total. 


296 

21,194 

140,843 

6,400 

17,260 

2,840 

21,844 

1,500 

1,712 

62,840 

30,794 

12,684 

109,842 

68,070 


$29 
1,595 
9,835 

440 
1,384 

280 
1,538 

110 

135 
5,051 
2,434 
1,235 
7,738 
5,042 


498,119 


$36,846 


The  New  Jersey  catch  is  given  because  about  15  per  cent,  of  the  catch  is  obtained 
in  Hudson  and  Bergen  counties  from  the  Hudson  river.     About  two-thirds  of  the 


480 


DATA   COLLECTED 


catcli  for  1904  in  Bergen  County  was  taken   by   men   from   Monmouth   and   Ocean 
counties,  who  move  up  on  the  Hudson  during  the  shad  season. 

TABLE  X 
CATCH  OF  SHAD  BY  COUNTIES  IN  NEW  JERSFA-  IN  1904 


Pounds 

Value 

Hudson  County     

69,200 

$8,860 

201,800 

17,758 

Total  

271,000 

$26,618 

From  the  table  referring  to  the  shad  catcli  it  is  readily  observed  that  although 
an  important  industry,  its  total  value  in  the  Hudson  river  in  1908,  $63,444,  is  com- 
paratively small  compared  to  the  value  of  the  oyster  industry. 

Writers  on  the  subject,  and  official  statements,  speak  of  the  variability  of  the  size 
of  the  catch,  but  it  is  to  be  noted  that  although  there  has  been  a  very  marked  diminu- 
tion in  the  total  number  of  fish  caught  this  has  been  more  noticeable  in  the  Hudson 
than  in  the  Delaware  river.  This  is  no  doubt  due,  among  other  causes,  to  government 
restriction  of  the  use  of  the  stake  gill  net,  natural  decrease  in  the  number  of  fish,  the 
num'ber  caught  in  other  rivers  being  kept  up  by  the  shad  hatcheries  of  the  United 
States  Government,  and  to  sewage  pollution  of  the  waters. 

Even  if  the  latter  cause  be  not  an  important  one,  it  is  commonly  considered  that 
Hudson  river  shad  is  far  less  palatable  than  formerly  and  less  palatable  than  shad 
caught  in  waters  further  south. 

Effect  of  the  Harbor  Waters  Upon  Fish  Life.  Mr.  Charles  H.  Townsend,  Director 
of  the  New  York  City  Aquarium  of  the  New  York  Zoological  Society,  was  asked  to 
answer  a  number  of  questions  which  would  bear  on  the  effect  of  the  harbor  waters  on 
fish  life.  The  questions  and  the  replies,  which  Mr.  Townsend  gives  permission  to  pub- 
lish, are  as  follows : 

Question.  What,  in  general,  is  your  opinion  of  the  effect  of  the  waters  of 
New  York  harbor  upon  fishes  which  normally  live  in  them? 

Answer.  My  opinion  is  that  the  water  imparts  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  shad 
passing  up  the  river.  It  tends  to  reduce  the  kinds  and  numbers  of  brackish- 
water  forms  of  life  which  ought  naturally  to  be  found  there,  and  which  must 
have  'been  more  abundant  fifty  years  ago  when  the  waters  were  clean  just  as 
they  are  still  abundant  in  clean  brackish-water  in  other  bays.  As  a  collecting 
ground  for  brackish-water  forms  for  an  aquarium  the  locality  is  a  poor  one  and 
the  only  reason  is  the  polluted  water. 


(lathering  Driftwood  for  Fuel  at  the  Battery,  Manhattan.     Driftwood  sometimes  coated 

an  inch  thick  with  grease  and  other  material  from  the  sewage-polluted 

harbor  is  taken  into  many  homes  daily 


Fishermen  (lathering  Oysters  at  Kobbins  Reef  in  Upper  New  York  Bay.     Oysters  and  other  shellfish  are  frequently 
gathered  at  places  which  are  heavily  polluted  with  sewage 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH          481 

Question.  What  effect  has  the  water  upon  fishes  which  do  not  normally 
live  in  it;  such  effects  as  you  would  see  upon  deep-sea  or  other  fishes  brought 
from  a  distance  to  the  Aquarium? 

Answer.  When  collections  of  fishes  from  the  outside  coasts  were  kept  in 
water  pumped  from  the  harbor,  constant  restocking  of  the  tanks  was  necessary 
to  keep  up  the  marine  exhibits  of  the  Aquarium.  Since  the  new  system  of  pure 
stored  sea  water  became  available  a  year  and  a  half  ago,  the  loss  of  specimens 
from  impure  water  has  been  eliminated.  Our  losses  are  now  no  greater  than 
those  occurring  in  other  public  aquariums,  being  limited  to  "  natural  causes." 

Question.  Would  you  be  willing  to  express  an  opinion  that  the  diminution 
of  shad,  crabs,  oysters,  etc.,  in  the  harbor  had  any  relation  to  sewage  pollution, 
or  pollution  by  trade  wastes? 

Answer.  I  am  certain  that  many  kinds  of  fishes  and  crustaceans,  formerly 
abundant  near  the  city  and  now  no  longer  common  there,  have  been  dispersed 
by  sewage  and  trade  wastes.  I  have  no  opinion  as  to  the  effects  upon  oysters 
under  such  conditions,  but  should  unhesitatingly  condemn  the  practice  of  keep- 
ing them  in  waters  affected  in  any  degree  by  sewage. 

UNCOOKED  OYSTERS  AND  TYPHOID  FEVER 

As  early  as  1879  oysters  were  considered  a  cause  of  typhoid  fever  and  gastro-in- 
(estinal  disorders.  Cammeron,1  in  1880,  read  a  paper  before  the  British  Medical  Asso- 
ciation entitled,  "  Oysters  and  Typhoid,"  in  which  he  suggested  that  contaminated 
oysters  might  be  the  cause  of  outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever  and  cholera.  This  was  sug- 
gested again  in  England  in  1893  by  Thorne-Thorne2  and  in  1894  was  published  a  report 
by  Conn3  on  an  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever  at  Wesleyan  University.  As  this  report  is  of 
much  importance  in  showing  the  relation  between  shellfish  and  disease  a  short  de- 
scription of  this  epidemic  is  given. 

Wesleyan  University  Epidemic.  There  were  25  cases  of  fever,  23  of  which  were 
pronounced  typhoid.  The  condition  of  the  water  was  first  investigated  and  it  was 
found  that  the  students  affected  had  drunk  the  same  water  that  others  in  the  town  had 
taken  with  no  ill  effects.  Similarly  ice,  milk  and  ice  cream  were  all  found  to  be  used 
by  others  than  the  students  diseased.  It  was  found  that  of  the  23  students  all  be- 
longed to  three  different  fraternities,  that  about  three  weeks  previous  to  the  onset  of 
the  illness  these  three  fraternities  had  had  a  banquet.  It  was  also  found  that  of  five 
Yale  students  who  had  attended  this  banquet  two  had  developed  typhoid  fever. 

There  were  no  other  cases  of  typhoid  fever  in  the  town  so  it  became  evident  that 
there  must  have  been  one  single,  common  cause  of  infection.  The  other  articles  of  diet 
used  at  the  banquet  were  investigated  (celery,  lettuce,  chicken,  lobster,  ham  and  other 
articles),  but  it  was  found  that  these  were  procured  by  the  three  different  fraternities  at 

1  British  Medical  Journal,  1880,  Vol.  II,  p.  471. 

1  24th  Report,  Local  Government  Board  for  England. 

'  Medical  Record,  1884,  Vol.  46  p.  743. 


482  DATA   COLLECTED 

different  places.  Four  fraternities  had  had  suppers  the  same  night  and  all  had  re- 
ceived oysters  from  the  same  source.  One  fraternity  had  used  them  cooked  and  no  case 
of  typhoid  had  developed  in  this  fraternity.  The  other  three  fraternities  ate  the  oysters 
raw.  All  of  the  students  who  fell  sick  ate  raw  oysters. 

It  was  found  that  the  oysters  were  shipped  from  Fairhaven,  Connecticut.  The 
oysters  were  taken  from  deep  water  in  Long  Island  Sound  and  had  been  allowed  to 
"  drink  "  in  the  brackish  water  of  the  Quinnipiac  river  for  "  fattening,"  i.  c.,  bloating, 
before  being  sent  to  the  consumer.  Close  to  the  oyster  beds  where  the  fattening  oc- 
curred was  the  outlet  of  a  private  sewer,  300  feet  from  the  beds.  In  a  private  house 
which  drained  into  this  sewer  were  two  severe  cases  of  typhoid  fever.  These  two  discs 
were  critically  ill  during  the  time  that  the  oysters  were  "  drinking  "  in  the  river.  It 
was  then  found  by  Foote,1  of  New  Haven,  that  the  bacillus  typhosus  would  live  in 
oysters  for  at  least  48  hours. 

Since  this  report  by  Conn  a  number  of  other  epidemics  have  been  reported  where 
the  chain  of  evidence  seemed  positive  that  typhoid  fever  resulted  from  the  eating  of 
oysters  and  other  shellfish.  Chantemesse,2  in  Paris,  1896;  Plowwright,3  in  1900; 
Thresh,4  in  1902.  Two  epidemics  in  Winchester  and  Southampton,  England,  were 
investigated  by  Bulstrode5  in  1903. 

Investigations  by  the  Local  Government  Board.  An  investigation  was  made  under 
the  direction  of  the  Local  Government  Board  of  England  by  Bulstrode  and  Klein,0  the 
results  of  which  have  been  summarized  by  Thorue-Thorne  as  follows :  "  First,  The  chol- 
era vibrio,  and  still  more,  the  typhoid  bacillus  are  difficult  of  demonstration  in  sewage 
known  to  have  received  them.  Second,  Both  these  organisms  may  persist  in  sea  water 
tanks  for  two  or  more  weeks,  the  typhoid  bacillus  retaining  its  characteristics  unim- 
paired, whilst  the  cholera  vibrio  tends  to  lose  them.  Third,  Oysters  from  sources 
which  appeared  to  be  free  from  risk  of  sewage  contamination  exhibited  none  of  the 
bacteria,  specific  or  otherwise,  which  are  commonly  regarded  as  being  concerned  with 
sewage.  Fourth,  Oysters  from  a  few  out  of  numerous  batches  derived  from  sources 
where  they  did  appear  to  be  exposed  to  risk  of  sewage  contamination  were  found  to 
exhibit  colon  bacilli;  a  circumstance  which,  notwithstanding  the  comparative  uni- 
versality of  this  intestinal  organism,  may  be  regarded  as  having  some  significance  by 
reason  of  the  absence  of  this  bacillus  from  oysters  which  appeared  to  have  been  ex- 
posed to  no  such  risk.  Fifth,  in  one  case,  where  the  circumstances  were  especially 

Medical  News,  1895,  Vol.  66,  p.  320. 

Bulletin  de  1'Academi  de  Medicin,  1896,  p.  534. 

British  Medical  Journal,  1900,  Vol.  II,  p.  681. 

Lancet,  1902,  p.  1567. 

Special  Report  Local  Government  Board,  England,  May  1903. 

Report  (24th)  Local  Government  Board,  England,  1894. 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH          483 

suspicious,  Eberth's  typhoid  bacillus  was  found  in  the  mingled  body  and  liquor  of  the 
oyster." 

This  report  was  published  in  1894.  Since  that  time  there  has  been  little  change 
of  opinion  though  a  mass  of  information  on  this  subject  has  been  acquired  by  the 
Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal  of  Great  Britain.1 

Southcnd-on-Sea  and  Yare.  In  reports  to  this  British  Commission  Marsh1  reported 
that  of  105  cases  of  typhoid  fever  in  Southend-on-Sea  at  least  50  per  cent,  were  due  to 
the  consumption  of  shellfish  contaminated  by  sewage.  He  further  reported  that  in  the 
town  of  Yare  where  typhoid  was  endemic  the  cases  diminished  in  number  30  per  cent, 
in  1901,  after  the  sale  of  mussels  had  been  prohibited. 

liriyliton.  A.  Newsholme1  reported  that  of  the  643  cases  of  typhoid  fever  in  Brigh- 
ton from  1894  to  1902,  37  per  cent,  were  ascribed  to  shellfish.  The  shellfish  were  traced 
to  particular  layings  which  were  proved  to  be  exposed  to  sewage  contamination  and 
typhoid  fever  was  found  to  exist  among  the  population  draining  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
layings. 

Manchester.  Niven1  also  reported  that  a  number  of  the  cases  of  typhoid  fever  in 
Manchester  were  also  ascribable  to  shellfish. 

London.  Shirley  Murphy1  thought  that  at  least  eight  per  cent,  of  the  cases  of 
typhoid  fever  in  London  in  1902  were  due  to  the  eating  of  shellfish. 

Conclusions  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Seicage  Disposal2 — "  After  care- 
fully considering  the  whole  of  the  evidence  on  this  point,  we  are  satisfied  that 
a  considerable  number  of  cases  of  enteric  fever  and  other  illness  are  caused  by 
the  consumption  of  shellfish  which  have  been  exposed  to  sewage  contamination ; 
but  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge,  we  do  not  think  it  possible  to  make  an 
accurate  numerical  statement. 

"  Moreover,  an  examination  of  the  figures  which  have  been  placed  before  us 
as  regards  those  towns  in  which  the  subject  has  been  most  carefully  studied 
shows  that  there  may  be  occasional  errors.  Indeed,  the  witnesses  themselves 
recognized  that  absolutely  accurate  figures  are  not  obtainable. 

"  We  are  far  from  denying  that  isolated  cases  may  have  been  due  to  con- 
taminated shellfish,  but  we  must  remember  that  the  possibility  of  some  of  them 
being  due  to  other  causes  cannot  be  altogether  excluded." 

Considerable  work  of  importance  has  also  been  done  in  this  country  since  the  first 
report  by  Conn  in  1894. 

New  York  Harbor.  Soper,  in  the  report  of  the  New  York  Bay  Pollution  Commis- 
sion,3 states  that  Jackson  Avorking  for  the  Commission,  found  the  colon  bacillus  in 
samples  of  oysters  from  Gravesend  'bay,  off  Elm  Tree  Beacon,  Swash  channel,  Great 
Kills  and  Princess  bay.  Samples  were  also  examined  by  the  Bender  Hygienic  Labora- 

'  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal,  Vol.  I,  II,  III,  1904. 

*  British  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal,  Vol.  I,  p.  29,  1904. 

•  Report,  1905,  p.  56. 


484  DATA   COLLECTED 

tory  at  Albany  and  33  per  cent,  of  the  Gravesend  bay  oysters  contained  colon  bacilli 
as  did  80  per  cent,  of  the  oysters  taken  off  Elni  Tree  Beacon. 

Samples  of  oysters  taken  from  the  Upper  and  Lower  bays  showed  evidence  of  fecal 
contamination. 

Lmvrence,  L.  I.  During  the  same  year  (1905)  Soper1  reported  the  results  of  his 
investigation  as  to  the  cause  of  a  typhoid  fever  epidemic  at  Lawrence,  L.  I. 

In  this  investigation  it  was  found  that  21  out  of  the  31  cases  of  typhoid  fever  which 
had  occurred  in  the  epidemic  were  the  result  of  eating  oysters  contaminated  with  sew- 
age. In  some  cases  typhoid  was  produced  by  handling  the  polluted  shells. 

It  was  found  that  most  of  the  oysters  were  taken  from  layings  in  Grass  Hassock 
channel,  itself  polluted  by  the  entire  sewage  of  Arverne,  a  summer  city  of  15,000  in- 
habitants. Oysters  from  these  beds  were  eaten  by  most  of  those  persons  who  subse- 
quently contracted  typhoid  fever. 

It  was  also  found  that  some  other  oysters  which  produced  typhoid  had  been 
placed  in  floats  in  an  arm  of  Jamaica  bay  near  Inwood  at  a  point  where  the  bay  re- 
ceived the  effluent  from  the  Far  Rockaway  sewage  disposal  works.  Analyses  proved 
that  the  effluent  from  these  works  contained  a  greater  number  of  bacteria  than  the  raw 
sewage.  The  water  about  the  oyster  floats  was  found  to  contain  colon  bacilli  to  the 
extent  of  at  least  one  of  these  germs  to  each  0.1  c.  c.  of  the  water.  Oysters  from  Grass 
Hassock  channel  and  from  the  floats  at  Inwood  in  25  per  cent,  of  the  samples  examined 
showed  colon  bacilli  in  0.1  c.  c.  of  the  shell  water  and  in  60  per  cent,  of  samples  in 
1.0  c.  c.  of  the  shell  water. 

Narragansett  Bay.  Caleb  Fuller,2  in  a  report  on  the  contamination  of  oysters  of 
Narragansett  bay,  made  bacteriological  analyses  of  a  large  number  of  samples  of  water 
taken  from  oyster  beds  and  also  made  similar  analyses  of  200  oysters. 

Fuller  found  that  the  water  for  five  miles  below  the  outlet  of  the  Providence 
sewer  outfalls  contained  colon  bacilli,  and  that  the  waters  of  Providence  river  and 
Narragansett  bay,  eight  miles  or  more  distant  from  the  principal  sewers  that  discharge 
into  these  waters,  contain  sewage  matters  or  colon  bacilli. 

One  hundred  oysters  were  taken  from  layings  widely  removed  from  any  possible 
source  of  sewage  contamination  and  were  examined  with  the  idea  of  determining  the 
normal  bacteria  in  the  oyster.  In  none  of  these  samples  was  the  colon  bacillus  found. 
This  agrees  with  the  reports  of  the  British  Eoyal  Commission  that  the  colon  bacillus 
is  not  normally  found  in  the  shell  water  or  the  intestine  of  oysters. 

1  Medical  News,  February  11,  1905. 

•  The  Distribution  of  Sewage  in  the  Waters  of  Narragansett  Bay,  with  especial  reference  to  the  contamination  of  the  oyster 
beds.     Bulletin  No.  569,  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  1905. 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOE  WATERS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH  485 

lu  the  200  oysters  examined,  Fuller  found  bacillus  coli  in  oysters  taken  from  beds 
that  were  six  and  a  half  miles  from  the  source  of  pollution.  Fuller  concludes  that  in 
those  waters  there  is  a  distinct  relation  between  the  bacillus  coli  in  the  water  and  in 
the  shellfish  living  in  those  waters. 

"  When  bacillus  coli  is  entirely  absent  from  the  water  it  can  not  be  found 
in  the  shellfish,  but  when  the  surrounding  waters  are  infected  with  it  it  is 
almost  certain  to  be  found  in  the  shellfish. 

"  Examination  of  the  shellfish  from  the  lower  river  and  bay  demonstrate 
that  the  bacteria  usually  occurring  in  oysters  taken  from  uncontaminated 
waters  are  such  forms  as  are  commonly  found  in  water. 

"  No  organisms  of  the  colon  group  were  isolated  from  these  oysters." 

Investigations  of  New  York  State  Department  of  Health.  During  the  summer  of 
1908  an  investigation  was  made  by  the  New  York  State  Department  of  Health  of 
the  sanitary  condition  of  the  shellfish  grounds  in  this  State.  The  report  made  by 
the  Department  also  goes  into  the  relation  between  sewage-contaminated  oysters  and 
disease,  and  gives  a  review  of  the  work  done  in  this  direction. 

An  important  feature  of  the  investigation  was  the  sanitary  inspection  and  bac- 
teriological examination  of  the  leased  and  private  oyster  grounds  in  the  State.  Of  the 
oyster  grounds  within  the  metropolitan  district,  the  Jamaica  bay,  Princess  bay,  East- 
chester  and  Pelham  bay  and  Raritan  bay  districts  were  investigated. 

The  data  collected  describe  the  public  and  private  sewer  outlets,  the  overflow 
pipes  from  cesspools  and  the  outside  privies  located  near  the  banks  of  streams  and  bays. 
The  location  of  all  leased  oyster  beds  was  noted  on  maps  on  which  were  also  charted  the 
location  of  sewer  outlets,  cesspools,  etc.  Bacteriological  examinations  were  made  of 
both  oysters  and  water  which  were  examined  at  the  State  Hygienic  Laboratory. 

The  results  of  these  examinations  were  tabulated  and  show  that  oysters  taken  from 
Jamaica  from  the  following  beds,  Flatlands  bay,  Big  channel,  near  Richardson  and 
trestle,  Ruffle  bay,  Big  Fishkill  channel,  Pumpkin  Patch  channel,  Goosekill  creek, 
Raunt,  Big  channel  (Old  Swale  marsh)  Island,  all  showed  sewage  pollution,  accord- 
ing to  standards  used  by  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  (that  is,  the  pres- 
ence of  colon  bacilli  in  1  c.  c.  volume  of  shell  water  in  50  per  cent,  of  samples). 

The  sanitary  survey  made  showed  that  many  oyster  beds  were  obviously  polluted 
by  public  and  private  sewers  and  private  cesspools  and  privies.  The  bacteriological 
examinations  showed  that  water  and  oysters  taken  from  these  oyster  beds  contained 
evidence  of  sewage  pollution. 


486  DATA  COLLECTED 

SECTION  III 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  POLLUTED  WATERS  ON  PUBLIC  HEALTH  THROUGH 

BATHING 

BATHING  ESTABLISHMENTS  AND  BATHING  BEACHES 

Floating  Bathing  Establishments.  The  free  floating  bathing  establishments,  of 
which  there  were  12  during  the  summer  of  1909,  are  constructed  of  wood.  They  are 
rectangular  in  plan,  from  30  to  40  feet  wide  and  80  to  100  feet  long.  They  have  an 
uncovered  swimming  pool  in  the  centre;  around  the  sides  are  rows  of  small  dressing 
rooms,  with  a  narrow  platform  in  front  bordering  upon  the  pool.  Below  the  dressing 
compartments  are  floats  which  give  the  structure  buoyancy.  Around  the  outside, 
planks  and  slats  project  below  the  surface  of  the  water  to  a  distance  of  six  or  eight 
feet  to  keep  out  large  floating  debris.  The  floor  of  the  pool  is  made  of  wood  and  is 
sufficiently  open  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  freely  in  and  out. 

A  few  days  each  week  the  bathing  establishments  are  reserved  for  female  bathers, 
the  remaining  days  being  reserved  for  males.  During  the  summer  there  is  great  de- 
mand for  the  bathing  accommodations,  but  only  as  many  bathers  are  allowed  in  at  a 
time  as  can  be  comfortably  accommodated.  It  is  a  common  sight  on  a  warm  day  to 
see  hundreds  of  boys,  waiting  their  turn,  held  in  check  by  policemen. 

The  bath  is  undoubtedly  enjoyable  to  these  boys  and  young  men.  Swimming  is 
common  and  on  the  first  plunge  the  mouths  of  many  are  filled  with  water.  Diving, 
though  prohibited,  is  frequent.  Boys  below  puberty  go  into  the  baths  nude;  older 
boys  and  men  wear  trunks.  Women  wear  bathing  suits. 

The  floating  bathing  establishments  are  situated  with  but  one  exception 
either  adjacent  to  Manhattan  or  in  the  East  river,  moored  to  docks  made  available 
for  this  purpose.  The  baths  are  used  from  about  the  first  of  July  to  the  first  week  in 
October. 

In  1908,  during  a  season  of  102  days,  there  were  taken  1,479,025  baths  by  males 
and  934,936  by  females,  a  total  of  2,413,961.  The  average  was  1,007  baths  daily.  No 
records  are  kept  of  the  identity  of  the  bathers. 

Besides  these  free  public  bathing  houses  there  were  several  private  bath  houses  and 
bathing  beaches  open  to  the  general  public  during  the  summer  of  1909. 

Inland  Bathing  Establishments.  In  addition  to  the  floating  bathing  establish- 
ments there  are  11  so-called  interior  bath  houses  in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan.  Of 
these  the  Cherry  and  Oliver  street  bath  was  opened  November  15  and  the  Rutgers 
place  bath  on  December  28,  1909.  In  East  Fifty-fourth  street  a  bathing  establishment 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS  AND  PUBLIC   HEALTH  487 

will  be  opened  during  1910.  There  is  one  interior  bathing  establishment  in  the  Bor- 
ough of  The  Bronx  and  there  are  eight  in  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn. 

These  interior  bathing  establishments  have  been  erected  to  provide  opportunities 
for  free  bathing.  They  are  arranged  with  tubs  and  showers  for  both  men  and  women. 
Towels  and  soap  are  not  furnished  because  the  loss  of  towels  was  found,  upon  experi- 
ment, to  be  very  great,  and  there  was  a  constant  danger  of  infection  from  their  use; 
soap  was  found  to  be  wastefully  used  when  given  free. 

The  interior  public  bath  houses  are  of  much  more  value  to  the  public  than 
the  floating  bathing  establishments  because,  for  one  reason,  they  are  open  daily  through- 
out the  year  for  men,  women  and  children.  They  are  both  cleansing  and  wholesome 
and  there  is  no  danger  of  the  transmission  of  disease. 

The  newer  interior  baths  have  been  built  in  localities  where  the  population  is 
densest  and  in  neighborhoods  where  the  floating  bathing  establishments  would  neces- 
sarily have  to  be  placed  in  harbor  waters  more  or  less  intensely  polluted. 

In  the  year  1908  there  were  7,907,230  baths  taken  in  the  public  interior  bath 
houses  in  the  City  of  New  York.  Of  this  number  5,271,422  were  taken  in  Manhattan, 
2,405,890  in  Brooklyn,  and  239,918  in  The  Bronx.  In  the  latter  borough  the  figures 
include  baths  taken  from  May  17th  only,  the  date  of  opening,  to  December  11,  1909. 

In  the  same  year  there  were  also  taken,  in  private  interior  bathing  establishments, 
64,502  baths  at  the  Riverside  House,  55,367  at  Center  Market  place,  201,290  at  the 
Milbank  Memorial  bath  and  37,012  at  the  Demilt  Dispensary. 

Location  of  the  Floating  Bathing  Establishments.  To  secure  a  site  for  a  free  float- 
ing bathing  establishment  application  is  made  by  the  Department  of  Public  Works  to 
the  Department  of  Docks  and  Ferries  which  designates  the  docks  available  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  site  is  not  finally  decided  upon,  however,  until  after  an  inspection  is  made 
by  the  Department  of  Health  which  has  authority  to  refuse  permits  to  the  site. 

There  is  a  State  law  which  has  some  bearing  on  this  subject.    It  reads  :* 

"  Regulating  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  Bathing  Establishments  and  the 
Preservation  of  Life  at  Bathing  Places.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person 
to  maintain,  either  as  owner  or  lessee,  any  bathing  establishment  of  any  kind, 
in  this  state,  for  the  accommodation  of  persons,  for  pay,  or  any  consideration, 
at  a  point  less  than  five  hundred  feet  from  any  sewer  connection  emptying 
therein  or  thereat,  so  as  to  pollute,  in  any  way,  the  waters  used  by  those  using 
or  hiring  bathing  houses  at  such  bathing  establishments;  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  such  owner  or  lessee  to  provide  separate  toilet  rooms,  with  waterclosets 
properly  provided  with  sanitary  plumbing,  constructed  in  a  manner  approved 
by  the  local  board  of  health  and  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  contaminate  the 
waters  used  by  the  bathers ;  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  owner  or  lessee  to  thor- 
oughly wash  and  disinfect  or  cause  to  be  thoroughly  washed  and  disinfected, 

1  Chapter  454,  Laws  of  New  York,  1905,  (Extract). 


488 


DATA   COLLECTED 


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FLOATING  BATHS 


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Floating  Bathing  Establishments  in  Relation  to  Sewer  Outfalls 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS  AND  PUBLIC  HEALTH  489 


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DATA   COLLECTED 


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Floating  Bathing  Establishments  in  Relation  to  Sewer  Outfalls 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS  AND  PUBLIC  HEALTH 


491 


in  a  manner  approved  by  the  local  board  of  health,  all  bathing  suits  that  have 
been  hired  or  used,  before  rehiring  or  permitting  the  use  of  the  same  again." 

This  law,  although  prohibiting  the  establishment  of  a  floating  bath  or  bathing 
place  does  not  apply  to  free  floating  baths  or  free  bathing  beaches.  It  is  also  quali- 
fied by  the  statement  "  so  as  not  to  contaminate  the  waters  used  by  the  bathers." 

These  regulations  show  that  legislative  precautions  were  taken,  though  whether 
the  law  was  intended  to  overlook  free  floating  bathing  establishments  and  bathing 
beaches  is  not  known. 

The  outer  sides  of  the  bathing  establishments,  which  project  as  a  rule  from  six 
to  eight  feet  below  water,  are  usually  made  of  slats  several  inches  apart.  These  have 
been  found  inadequate  to  keep  out  floating  debris  and  the  larger  particles  of  sewage 
with  which  the  harbor  waters  abound.  In  some  of  the  establishments  boards  have 
been  nailed  close  together  (in  one  sand  bags  have  been  piled  up)  to  keep  out  the 
larger  particles,  and  in  many  a  small  net  on  a  pole,  similar  to  a  crab  net,  is  kept  to 
remove  feces  when  they  become  too  numerous. 

The  sewer  outlets  of  Manhattan  are  so  near  together  that  it  hardly  seems  pos- 
sible to  pick  out  locations  for  floating  bathing  establishments  free  from  danger  of 
intense  sewage  contamination. 

The  free  floating  bathing  establishments  were  moored  during  the  summer  of  1909 
in  the  situations  given  in  Table  XI. 

TABLE  XI 

TABLE  SHOWING  LOCATION  OF  FLOATING  BATHING  ESTABLISHMENTS  IN  RELATION  TO 

SEWER  OUTLETS 


Location  of  Bathing 
Establishment 

Nearest  Sewer 
Outlet 

Size  of 
Sewer 

Distance  of  Sewer  from  Bathing  Establishment 

East  river  — 

Jefferson  street 

5' 
15" 
4'  3" 
5'  8" 
g  bathing  e 

4'  6" 
3'  6" 

662.  5  feet  north. 
225  feet  north. 
1,062.4  feet  south. 
1,875  feet  south, 
stablishments  in  the  summer  of  1909  situated  at  Corlears 

Egan's  private  bath,  100  feet  north  ;  free  floating  bath, 
212  .  5  feet  north  ;  private  salt  bath,  312.5  feet  north. 

Egan's  private  bath,  462  .  5  feet  north  ;  free  floating  bath, 
375  feet  north  ;  private  salt  bath,  275  feet  north. 

Corlears  Park  

Rutgers  street 

Market  street 

Oliver  street  

There  were  three  floatin 
Park. 

Corlears  street  

Jackson  street  

492 


DATA   COLLECTED 
TABLE  XI— Continued 


Location  of  Bathing 
Establishment 

Nearest  Sewer 
Outlet 

Size  of 
Sewer 

Distance  of  Sewer  from  Bathing  Establishment 

East  5th  street  

East  Houston  street  .  .  . 

4' 

700  feet  south 

East  3d  street  

5' 

576  4  feet  south 

East  4th  street     .    .    . 

2'  6" 

323  5  feet  south 

East  5th  street 

3'  4" 

94  i  feet  east 

East  6th  street  

3'  4" 

229  4  feet  northwest 

East  7th  street  .  . 

3'  4' 

453  feet  north-northwest. 

East  51st  street. . . 


This  establishment  was  situated  within  500  feet  of  four  sewer  outlets. 

At  East  51st  street  a  free  floating  bathing  establishment  was  maintained  in  1908  but  not  in  1909. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  new  bathing  establishment  supplied  from  the  city  drinking  water 
supply  is  (1909)  nearly  completed  in  54th  street  between  1st  and  2d  avenues,  where  a 
cleansing  bath  may  be  obtained  without  danger  of  pollution  from  sewage. 


East  96th  street  

Hudson  river  — 
Battery  Baths  .    . 

East  95th  street  

4' 
H  10" 

5  bathing  es 
4' 
5'  8" 
2'  10" 
4' 
5'  3" 
4' 
5'  3" 
4' 
6' 
4' 
7'  8" 
4' 

15' 
10' 
15' 
W 
5'  6" 
2' 
6' 
3? 

323.  5  feet  south. 
1,029.4  feet  north. 

tablishments  at  the  Battery. 
1,400  feet  northwest. 
2,100  feet  southeast. 
252.9  feet  south. 
670.5  feet  north. 
764.  7  feet  south. 
2,200  feet  north. 
970.  5  feet  south. 
2,000  feet  north. 
323.5  feet  south. 
3,000  feet  north. 
1,558.8  feet  south. 
300  feet  north. 

1,400  feet  south. 
2,399.  9  feet  north. 
1,500  feet  south. 
4,000  feet  north  and  west. 
788  feet  south. 
517  feet  north. 
882  feet  southwest. 
488  feet  west. 

East  100th  street 

There  were  three  floatin 
Morris  street  

West  51st  street...  . 
West  83d  street  
West  84th  street.... 
West  97th  street.... 
West  135th  street... 

Brooklyn  — 
58th  street  

Broad  street  

West  50th  street  

West  54th  street  

West  80th  street  

West  9  1st  street  

West  80th  street  

West  91st  street  

West  96th  street  

West  108th  street  

West  130th  street  

West  138th  street     . 

64th  street 

Stein's  Beach  

49th  street  

64th  street 

Noble  street  

49th  street  

Quay  street  

Dock  street  

Greenpoint  avenue  
Fulton  street 

Main  street  

POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH  493 

CONTAMINATION  OF  WATER  OF    BATHING    ESTABLISHMENTS 

A  number  of  experiments  were  made  in  order  to  learn,  by  the  use  of  strong  dyes 
discharged  into  sewers,  whether  water  polluted  with  sewage  could  be  traced  directly 
from  a  sewer  outlet  to  the  waters  within  the  bathing  establishments.  Thirty-two  ex- 
periments were  made  covering  conditions  at  14  bathing  establishments.  The  dye  was 
introduced  into  the  water  at  a  sewer  outlet  when  the  current  was  flowing  from  the 
sewer  toward  the  bathing  place.  At  six  bathing  establishments  the  water  inside  the 
establishment  became  colored  with  the  dye  within  a  few  minutes  and  in  two  other  cases 
the  dye  was  seen  staining  the  water  on  the  outside.  The  dyes  used  were  uranine  and 
special  scarlet. 

The  following  description  shows  the  character  of  the  information  collected  in 
the  experiments: 

July  9,  1909.  Weather  fair;  tidal  current  running  strongly  up  stream;  wind 
southwest.  Low  water  at  Governors  Island  at  7.58  A.  M. 

10.45  A.  M.  Put  one  pound  special  scarlet  in  outlet  of  sewer  on  Eightieth  street 
pier.  Color  flowed  upstream  at  the  rate  of  about  half  a  mile  per  hour. 

11.00  A.  M.     The  color  had  reached  the  bathing  establishment  and  surrounded 
it.     The  observer  went  inside. 

11.01  A.  M.     The  color  was  very  strongly  visible  in  the  swimming  pool.     The 
boys  bathing  noticed  it. 

11.05  A.  M.  A  policeman  and  bath  house  keeper  went  on  the  roof  of  the  bath 
house  to  see  where  the  color  was  coming  from. 

11.12  A.  M.     Observer  left  vicinity. 

Addenda.  The  swimming  pool,  on  inspection  before  the  arrival  of  the  color  con- 
tained bits  of  floating  sewage,  but  no  large  pieces  of  feces  were  visible. 

This  establishment  is  764  feet  from  the  sewer  outlet.  The  color  reached  it  from 
the  sewer  outlet  in  16  minutes.  The  inference  was  irresistible  that  sewage  discharged 
from  the  West  Eightieth  street  sewer  during  the  flood  current  would  pollute  the  water  in 
the  West  Eighty-third  street  bathing  establishment.  This  pollution  would  probably 
last  through  the  entire  duration  of  this  current. 


494 


DATA   COLLECTED 


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POLLUTION  OF  HARBOK  WATERS  AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH 


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DATA   COLLECTED 


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Exterior  of  a  Free  Floating  Hathing  Establishment.      It  is  impossible  to  locate  bathing  establishments  at  a  safe 

distance  from  the  sewer  outlets 


Interior  of  a  Free  Floating  Bathing  Establishment.     Sewage  particles  were  often  visible  in  the  water  of  these  baths 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH  497 

DANGER  OF  BATHING  IN  THE  HARBOR  WATER 

Typhoid  Fever.  It  is  well  known  that  typhoid  fever  is  frequently  a  water-borne 
disease,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  less  than  one  glass  of  water  containing  typhoid 
bacilli  may  cause  typhoid  fever.  The  discharges  from  a  single  patient  have  been  known 
to  pollute  the  entire  water  supply  of  a  city  sufficiently  to  cause  a  serious  epidemic  of 
typhoid  fever.  Other  infectious  diseases,  such  as  pneumonia,  meningitis,  tuberculosis, 
and  diphtheria,  may  be  water-borne. 

The  water  of  the  harbor,  contaminated  constantly  by  sewage,  must  contain  typhoid 
bacilli,  because  typhoid  is  always  present  in  the  City  of  New  York.  It  has  been  shown 
that  these  bacilli  may  live  for  months  in  water.  Taking  water  into  the  mouth 
while  swimming  is  common,  and  those  who  have  bathed  in  this  manner  know  that  such 
water  is  not  infrequently  swallowed. 

Diseases  of  the  Eye.  In  public  bathing  establishments  inflammations  of  the  eye 
are  not  infrequently  seen.  These  inflammations  are  usually  of  the  nature  of  conjunc- 
tivitis, or  pink-eye,  a  disease  which  must  not,  however,  be  confused  with  the  redness 
of  the  eyes  which  so  frequently  follows  bathing  in  salt  water.  This  latter  passes  away 
in  a  few  hours.  With  conjunctivitis,  however,  the  eyes  remain  reddened  and  matter 
or  pus  is  formed  which  persists  for  days,  sometimes  weeks,  before  a  cure  is  effected. 
This  disease  is  dangerous,  for  others  may  be  infected.  Serious  loss  of  time  may  result 
on  account  of  inability  to  use  the  eyes  during  the  course  of  the  disease.  As  a  rule, 
the  disease  runs  a  short  course  and  does  not  destroy  the  sight. 

SECTION  IV 

FLIES,  INSECTS,  VERMIN  AND  OTHER  AGENCIES  AS  CARRIERS  OF  DIS- 
EASE GERMS  FROM  THE  POLLUTED  HARBOR 

FLIES  AS  CARRIERS  OF  DISEASE  GERMS 

During  the  last  30  years  scientific  experiments  have  shown  that  flies  may  act  as, 
carriers  of  the  germs  of  disease.  As  early  as  1869  Nysin1  believed  that  anthrax  was 
transmited  by  flies,  and  Nuttall2  in  a  review  of  the  literature  stated  in  1900  "  that 
ordinary  flies  (musca  domestica  and  the  like)  may  carry  about  and  deposit  the  bacil- 
lus of  anthrax  in  their  excrements,  or  cause  infection  through  their  soiled  exterior 
coming  in  contact  with  wounded  surfaces  *  *  *." 

Nuttall  also  showed  that  plague  bacilli  could  live  48  to  72  hours  in  flies.  McCrae3 
reported  cases  of  cholera  evidently  transmitted  by  flies  in  1894.  Numerous  other  ob- 
servations have  been  made  on  the  life  of  the  fly  and  the  possibility  of  its  carrying  dis- 
ease germs. 

1  Quoted  by  Nuttall. 

'  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Reports,  Vol.  VIII,  1900,  p.  1. 

3  Quoted  by  Nuttall. 


498  DATA    COLLECTED 

Flies  multiply  with  marvellous  rapidity.  They  develop  usually  in  moist  and  de- 
caying organic  substances.  Some  observers  state  that  they  occasionally  travel  ten 
miles  an  hour;  others  believe  that  they  rarely  migrate  more  than  200  yards  from 
where  they  are  hatched. 

Jackson's  Report.1  A  report  by  D.  D.  Jackson  consisted  of  a  description  of 
an  inspection  of  the  waterfront  of  the  various  boroughs  of  New  York,  particularly 
Manhattan,  and  a  study  of  the  prevalence  and  distribution  of  flies  and  cases  of  cer- 
tain diseases  in  order  to  demonstrate  what  proportion  of  intestinal  disorders  in  New 
York  were  contracted  through  the  agency  of  flies. 

The  author  describes  existing  conditions  at  the  waterfront,  noting  in  detail  the 
filthy  state  of  docks,  their  lack  of  water-closet  facilities  and  the  constant  presence 
of  fecal  discharge  upon  them.  The  polluted  condition  of  the  water  adjacent  to  the, 
docks  is  also  mentioned. 

The  prevalence  of  flies  was  noted  by  the  number  of  flies  caught  in  cages  placed  in 
four  stations  in  Brooklyn,  two  in  New  York  and  one  at  City  Island.  The  flies  caught  in 
these  cages  were  counted.  The  greatest  number  was  captured  during  the  last  two 
weeks  of  July  and  the  first  two  weeks  of  August.  The  author  found  that  the  great- 
est number  of  deaths  from  intestinal  diseases  occurred  during  these  weeks.  He  also 
discovered  that  the  prevalence  of  flies,  heat  and  deaths  from  intestinal  diseases  fol- 
lowed a  similar  curve.  To  make  the  incidence  of  typhoid  fever  agree  with  this  curve 
the  date  of  death  was  set  back  two  months,  allowing  ttiree  weeks  for  incubation  and 
five  weeks  for  illness. 

A  careful  study  of  the  report  leads  to  the  opinion  that  the  conclusions  are  not  fully 
supported  by  the  facts.  Jackson  believed  that  the  typhoid  cases  and  deaths  from 
intestinal  diseases  all  occurred  at  points  located  adjacent  to  the  most  polluted  areas 
of  waterfront.  But  close  examination  of  his  plotted  chart  of  deaths  from  intestinal 
diseases  in  Manhattan  shows  that  the  number  of  deaths  varied  with  the  density  of 
population.  The  deaths  from  cancer  in  1903  showed  the  same  relative  distribution 
as  typhoid,  and  it  is  not  supposable  that  cancer  is  caused  by  flies.  The  distribution  of 
cases  of  typhoid  does  not  differ  from  the  distribution  of  cases  of  any  disease,  and  the 
greater  number  of  deaths  from  intestinal  diseases  occur  in  the  same  areas  as  the 
deaths  from  any  other  disease. 

OTHEB  AGENCIES  IN  THE  SPREAD  op  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

Rats  and  Vermin.  It  is  a  recognized  fact  that  rats  and  mice  suffer  from  certain 
communicable  diseases  which  may  also  occur  in  man,  notably  the  plague.  It  has 

1  Report  to  New  York  Merchants  Association  on  an  Investigation  of  the  relation  of  flies  and  the  polluted  waterfront  of  the 
City  of  New  York  to  typhoid  fever,  by  D.  D.  Jackson,  1908. 


POLLUTION  OF  HARBOR  WATERS   AND   PUBLIC   HEALTH  499 

further  been  shown  that  these  animals,  especially  rats,  have  carried  plague 
bacilli  from  human  beings  and  infected  other  human  beings  with  this  disease.  No 
definite  statements  have  been  made,  however,  to  show  that  typhoid  fever  and  other 
intestinal  diseases  may  be  caused  by  rodents. 

Other  vermin  as  well  as  rodents  exist  along  the  waterfront  and  may  act  as  car- 
riers of  infections  material. 

Drift  wood.  Driftwood  is  constantly  collecting  along  the  shores,  frequently 
in  the  midst  of  fields  of  sewage.  The  driftwood  collects  along  the  shores,  more 
in  some  places  than  in  others,  and  persons  may  be  found  daily  gathering  this  wood. 
Persons  have  been  seen  picking  driftwood  out  of  the  water  in  which  inspectors  of 
the  Commission  have  seen  fecal  matter,  garbage,  vegetables,  decomposing  fruit,  a  pair 
of  lungs,  etc. 

Favorite  places  for  the  collection  of  driftwood  are  the  Battery,  East  Fifty-first 
slreet,  West  Eighty-third  street,  Nortons  Point,  the  shores  of  Stateu  Island  and 
various  other  points  along  the  Harlem  and  Hudson  rivers. 

The  collection  of  driftwood  is  another  way  in  which  infectious  material  may  be 
carried  from  the  waters  to  the  people.  The  wood  is  carried  to  homes  and  sometimes 
handled  by  many  persons  before  it  is  burned.  Specimens  of  driftwood  collected  by 
the  Metropolitan  Sewage  Commission  have  been  examined  by  the  City  of  New  York 
Department  of  Health,  and  found  to  be  heavily  contaminated  with  fecal  bacteria. 

SECTION  V 
INFLUENCE  OF  ODORS  ON  HEALTH 

The  harbor  waters  arc  used  by  a  large  number  of  persons  daily  in  moving  on  pas- 
senger boats  from  one  part  of  the  harbor  to  another.  During  the  year  1903,  thirteen 
ferry  companies  carried  194,101,515  passengers. 

Odors  in  various  parts  of  the  harbor  now  exist  and  it  is  conceivable  that  in  future 
they  may  be  so  aggravated  as  to  become  a  nuisance  and  prevent  the  enjoyment  here- 
tofore afforded  to  excursionists. 

Hospitals  Along  the  Waterfront.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  of  location  and  cool- 
ness a  number  of  municipal  hospitals  are  situated  along  the  waterfront.  A  superin- 
tendent of  one  of  these  institutions  states  that  the  presence  of  sewage  and  fecal  material 
in  the  waters  had  an  unpleasant  effect  upon  the  patients.  Although  there  may  be  no 
visible  effect  upon  the  public  health,  unpleasant  effects  are  produced  by  the  present  con- 
dition of  the  harbor,  which,  if  aggravated,  may  cause  more  serious  effects  on  public 
health. 


CHAPTER  XII 

LEGAL    JURISDICTION     OVER    SEWAGE     DISPOSAL     IN    THE 
METROPOLITAN     DISTRICT    OF     NEW     YORK 

Sanitary  jurisdiction  is  exercised  by  the  United  States  Government,  the  States  of 
New  York  and  New  Jersey,  and  the  City  of  New  York  over  the  harbor  of  New  York, 
although  the  regulations  in  force  with  regard  to  sewage  disposal  are  by  no  means 
strict,  and  have  no  reference  to  the  general  condition  of  the  waters.  The  principal  ob- 
ject of  the  government  regulations  is  to  prevent  the  dumping  of  solid  matters  into  the 
water  to  the  injury  of  the  channels;  the  main  object  of  the  regulation  by  the  State 
of  New  York  is  the  management  of  the  quarantine,  and  the  principal  aim  of  the  City's 
jurisdiction  is  to  prevent  local  nuisances  along  the  shores. 

JURISDICTION  BY  THE  UNITED  STATES 

The  jurisdiction  exercised  by  the  United  States  Government  is  carried  on  through 
the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  War  Department.  There  is  a  special  bureau  for  this 
work  in  the  New  York  district. 

Origin  of  Government  Control.  In  the  year  1884  complaints  of  injury  to  the  har- 
bor from  dumping  solid  refuse  into  it  took  definite  shape  and  surveys  were  made  by 
( 'ommauder  H.  C.  Taylor,  U.  S.  N.,  at  the  request  of  Mayor  Edson  of  New  York.  These 
seemed  to  show  a  startling  diminution  in  the  depth  of  water  at  Sandy  Hook.  The  re- 
duction in  depth  was  considered  by  experts  who  were  called  upon  to  investigate  the 
matter  to  be  due  largely,  if  not  wholly,  to  the  dumping  of  solid  refuse  into  the  waters 
of  the  harbor  and  its  tributaries.  The  question  was  inquired  into  by  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce  of  the  State  of  New  York,  which  body  in  course  of  time  expressed  an  opin- 
ion confirmatory  of  the  reports.  In  the  absence  of  adequate  protective  legislation  by 
the  State  of  New  York  and  in  view  of  a  claim  of  jurisdiction  by  New  Jersey  over  a 
portion  of  the  bay,  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  United  States  Government  to  assume 
exclusive  control.  The  government  was  asked  to  assign  a  competent  officer  of  the 
United  States  Engineer  Corps  to  take  charge  of  measures  to  prevent  further  injury  to 
the  channels  by  solid  matter.  As  a  result,  an  Act  was  passed  by  Congress  and  approved 
June  29,  1888,  to  prevent  obstructive  and  injurious  deposits  in  the  harbor  of  New  York 
and  its  adjacent  waters  by  dumping  or  otherwise,  and  to  prevent  such  offences.  This 
act  was  amended  in  1894  so  as  to  enlarge  the  functions  and  powers  of  the  office  of 
Supervisor  of  the  Harbor  which  had  been  created. 


502  DATA    COLLECTED 

Power  and  Jurisdiction  of  the  Supervisor  of  the  Harbor.  Under  the  provisions  of 
the  original  act  a  line  officer  of  the  navy  is  designated  to  discharge  the  duties  created 
by  the  act,  this  officer  being  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  The  Super- 
visor lias  power  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  harbor,  but  only  by  material  discharged 
in  solid  form,  and  is  probably  without  jurisdiction  over  such  wastes  as  may  be 
discharged  through  sewers.  Violation  of  the  requirements  is  a  misdemeanor  punishable 
by  fine  of  between  $250  and  $2,500  and  imprisonment  for  from  30  days  to  one  year,  either 
or  both,  as  the  judge  before  whom  conviction  is  obtained  may  decide.  The  work  done  by 
the  Supervisor  costs  the  national  government  about  |150,000  annually  and  is  carried  on 
chiefly  by  means  of  inspections,  a  number  of  steam  vessels  being  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose. An  attempt  is  made  to  keep  track  of  all  the  solid  matter,  amounting  to  upwards 
of  18,000,000  cubic  yards  per  year,  transported  across  the  harbor.  In  spite  of  the  ut- 
most vigilance  it  has  been  impossible,  so  far,  to  prevent  the  premature  discharge  of  car- 
goes on  their  way  to  the  dumping  grounds  which  the  Supervisor  has  designated  in  the 
ocean  beyond  the  harbor  limits.  When  culprits  are  caught  dumping  their  cargoes  sur- 
reptitiously the  excuse  is  generally  given  that  it  has  been  necessary  to  discharge  the 
material  because  of  stress  of  weather  to  save  the  scows  and  the  lives  of  the  crews.  It 
is  estimated  by  the  Supervisor  that  about  6,000  cubic  yards  of  solid  material  are  acci- 
dentally or  intentionally  lost  overboard  annually.  This  quantity  seems  small  when  the 
quantities  transported  and  the  crude  method  of  transfer  are  considered. 

The  Harbor  Line  Hoard  and  tittits  Against  Neic  Jersey.  Pollution  by  sewage 
is  a  matter  over  which  the  War  Department  has  no  control  through  the  Harbor  Line 
Board.  This  Board  is  composed  of  five  officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  United 
States  Army  each  of  whom  has  charge  of  the  work  which  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment is  constantly  doing  to  improve  and  maintain  the  harbor  for  the  purposes  of  navi- 
gation. 

The  sanitary  significance  of  sewage  pollution  in  New  York  harbor  is  not  a  matter 
witli  which  the  Government  has  interested  itself  except  in  a  suit  brought  by  the  State 
of  New  York  against  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners  and  the  State  of 
New  Jersey  to  prevent  the  execution  of  the  Passaic  valley  sewerage  project  and  in  a 
similar  protest  against  the  Bronx  valley  sewerage  project.  In  the  Passaic  valley  suit  the 
United  States  Government  joined  with  the  State  of  New  York  in  protesting  before  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court.  The  basis  of  action  by  the  United  States  was  the  sup- 
posed injury  to  government  property  situated  in  New  York  harbor  and  the  possible 
harm  which  might  be  done  to  the  health  of  United  States  soldiers.  The  case  is  still 
pending  in  1910. 


JURISDICTION   IX    THE    METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  503 

The  injury  which  might  be  done  to  navigation  by  the  discharge  of  sewage  was  the 
subject  of  consideration  by  the  New  York  Harbor  Line  Board  in  1897  and  1908.  On  each 
of  these  occasions  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  had  asked  permission  to 
construct  outfall  works  for  their  trunk  sewer.  On  each  occasion  the  Board  confined  it- 
self strictly  to  a  consideration  of  the  effects  upon  navigation  whicli  might  be  produced 
in  the  channels  of  the  harbor. 

The  section  of  the  River  and  Harbor  Act  under  which  the  Harbor  Line  Board  and 
I  he  Supervisor  of  the  Harbor  act  here  follows: 

Section  13.  That  it  shall  not  be  lawful  to  throw,  discharge,  or  deposit,  or 
cause,  suffer,  or  procure  to  be  thrown,  discharged,  or  deposited  either  from  or 
out  of  any  ship,  barge,  or  other  floating  craft  of  any  kind,  or  from  the  shore,  wharf, 
manufacturing  establishment,  or  mill  of  any  kind,  any  refuse  matter  of  any  kind 
or  description  whatever  other  than  that  flowing  from  streets  and  sewers  and 
passing  therefrom  in  a  liquid  state,  into  any  navigable  water  of  the  United  States, 
or  into  any  tributary  of  any  navigable  water  from  which  the  same  shall  float  or 
be  washed  into  such  navigable  water ;  and  it  shall  not  be  lawful  to  deposit,  or 
cause,  suffer,  or  procure  to  be  deposited  material  of  any  kind  in  any  place  on  the 
bank  of  any  navigable  water,  or  on  the  bank  of  any  tributary  of  any  navigable 
water,  where  the  same  shall  be  liable  to  be  washed  into  such  navigable  water, 
either  by  ordinary  or  high  tides,  or  b^  storms  or  floods,  or  otherwise,  whereby 
navigation  shall  or  may  be  impeded  or  obstructed;  Provided,  That  nothing  here- 
in contained  shall  extend  to,  apply  to,  or  prohibit  the  operations  in  connection 
with  the  improvement  of  navigable  waters  or  construction  of  public  works,  con- 
sidered necessary  and  proper  by  the  United  States  officers  supervising  such  im- 
provement or  public  work ;  And,  provided  further,  That  the  Secretary  of  War, 
whenever  in  the  judgment  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers  anchorage  and  navigation 
will  not  be  injured  thereby,  may  permit  the  deposit  of  any  material  above  men- 
tioned in  navigable  waters,  within  limits  to  be  defined  and  under  conditions  to 
be  prescribed  by  him,  provided  application  is  made  to  him  prior  to  depositing 
such  material;  and  whenever  any  permit  is  so  granted  the  conditions  thereof 
shall  be  strictly  complied  with,  and  any  violation  thereof  shall  be  unlawful. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  provisions  of  this  act  state  that  it  is  unlawful  to  deposit 
refuse  of  any  kind  other  than  that  flowing  from  streets  and  sewers  and  passing  there- 
from in  liquid  state  into  New  York  harbor  or  any  tributary  of  it.  The  interesting  ques- 
tion arises:  Are  the  solids  carried  by  sewage  in  suspension  to  be  regarded  as  refuse 
in  a  liquid  state?  If  it  is  not  in  liquid  state  the  Supervisor  may  have  jurisdiction  over 
the  disposal  of  sewage.  This  point  has  never  been  decided  nor  raised.  The  Supervisor 
confines  himself  to  preventing  ashes,  garbage,  sand  and  other  coarse  solid  matters  from 
being  dumped  by  vessels  into  the  harbor  to  the  injury  of  navigation. 

JURISDICTION  UNDER  INTERSTATE  LAW 

An  agreement  was  entered  into  between  the  States  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
in  1833  to  establish  proper  jurisdiction  over  the  harbor  for  sanitary  purposes.  This 


504  DATA    COLLECTED 

agreement  was  subsequently  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  both  States  and  approved 
by  Congress.    It  is  in  force  at  the  present  day. 

Terms  of  the  Argreement  Jieticeen  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  Article  3  of  this 
agreement  states: 

"  The  State  of  New  York  shall  have  and  enjoy  exclusive  jurisdiction  on  and 
over  all  the  waters  of  the  bay  of  New  York  and  over  all  the  waters  of  such  rivers 
lying  west  of  Manhattan  and  to  the  south  of  the  mouth  of  Spuyten  Duyvil  creek 
and  over  the  land  covered  by  the  said  waters  below  low  water  mark  on  the  west- 
erly or  New  Jersey  side  thereof,  subject  to  the  following  rights  of  property  and 
jurisdiction  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey." 

A  perusal  of  this  agreement  and  of  various  court  decisions  based  upon  it  shows  that 
the  jurisdiction  thus  given  to  the  State  of  New  York  covers  all  the  waters  of  the  Hud- 
son river  and  New  York  bay  and  all  vessels  and  craft  of  every  kind  Avhile  the  same  are 
afloat  upon  the  waters.  It  was  meant  to  be  a  jurisdiction  for  police  and  quarantine 
purposes.  It  was  intended  that  vessels  should  not  escape  or  evade  the  quarantine  and 
other  laws  relating  to  passengers  in  New  York  by  coming  to  anchor  on  the  New  Jersey 
shore  or  becoming  attached  to  wharves  or  docks  on  the  New  Jersey  side. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  State  of  New  York,  established  by  this  agreement  has,  ex- 
cept as  it  relates  to  quarantine,  'been  transferred  to  The  City  of  New  York  for  admin- 
istrative purposes.  The  State  of  New  York  still  manages  and  pays  for  the  quarantine 
regulations  of  the  harbor. 

Application  of  this  Agreement  to  the  Disposal  of  Seicuge  from  New  Jersey.  In  or- 
der to  determine  whether  the  agreement  of  1833  gives  the  State  of  New  York  power  to 
impose  restrictions  upon  the  emptying  of  sewage  into  New  York  harbor  from  New  Jer- 
sey the  New  York  Bay  Pollution  Commission  in  1905  obtained  from  State  Attorney 
General  John  Cuneen  an  opinion  on  the  following  question : 

What  power,  if  any,  has  the  State  of  New  York  to  impose  conditions  upon 
the  State  of  New  Jersey  as  to  constructing  the  Passaic  valley  sewer  and  oper- 
ating it  in  the  future? 

The  opinion  of  the  Attorney  General  was  that,  while  the  two  States  of  New  York 
and  New  Jersey  could  enter  into  any  negotiations  they  saw  fit;  yet  New  York  could  not 
impose  any  conditions  in  reference  to  the  construction  and  operation  of  a  sewer  from 
New  Jersey,  which  would  be  enforceable  in  any  other  way  than  by  a  proceeding  in  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  to  restrain  the  use  and  operation  of  such  sewer.  Thus, 
while  the  State  of  New  York  might  pass  a  law  prescribing  a  penalty  for  dumping  sew- 
age into  the  waters  of  the  harbor,  the  penalty  could  not  be  enforced  or  collected  in  a 


JURISDICTION   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  505 

court  of  the  State  of  New  York  against  the  State  of  New  Jersey  or  any  part  of  it.  In 
the  Attorney  General's  opinion  the  proper  form  in  which  to  seek  redress  would  be  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court. 

It  was  upon  this  opinion  that  the  State  of  New  York  brought  suit  against  the 
State  of  New  Jersey  and  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners  to  restrain  the 
latter  from  constructing  the  Passaic  valley  sewer. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  question  put  to  the  Attorney  General  implied  a  desire  on 
the  part  of  New  York  to  use  its  supervisory  power,  not  in  a  general  way,  but  in  a 
discriminating  manner,  against  New  Jersey.  Whether  the  State  of  New  York  would 
have  more  power  to  enforce  regulations  against  the  discharge  of  sewage,  if  these  regu- 
lations were  made  more  general  in  application,  is  a  question  which  has  not  been  passed 
upon. 

JURISDICTION  BY  NEW  JERSEY 

Tiie  restrictions  which  New  Jersey  is  empowered  to  exercise  over  the  discharge  of 
sewage  into  New  York  bay  are  contained  chiefly  in  the  laws  of  that  State  passed  in 
1900,  1904  and  1907.  It  was  intended  that  these  laws  should  be  administered  by  the 
New  Jersey  State  Sewerage  Commission,  which  was  established  by  an  Act  of  the  Legis- 
lature approved  March  24,  1899.  The  State  Sewerage  Commission,  was,  however,  soon 
deprived  of  jurisdiction  over  conditions  in  the  Passaic  valley. 

Jurisdiction  of  State  Board  of  Health  and  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission. 
My  a  recent  Act  of  Legislature  the  State  Sewerage  Commission  was  combined  with  the 
State  Board  of  Health  and  the  laws  relating  to  sewage  disposal  in  New  Jersey  out- 
side of  the  Passaic  valley  district  are  now,  in  1910,  enforced  by  the  State  Board  of 
Health. 

Chapter  72  of  the  Laws  of  1900  specifically  took  from  the  protection  of  the  State 
Sewerage  Commission  the  waters  of  the  ocean  and  the  waters  separating  New  Jersey 
from  New  York,  for  Section  42  of  that  Law  states :  "  Waters  of  this  state,  as  used  in 
this  act,  shall  not  be  held  or  construed  to  include  the  ocean  or  any  waters  separating 
this  state  from  any  other,  unless  such  waters  are  used  for  potable  purposes."  The  juris- 
diction thus  destroyed  was  restored  by  Chapter  313  of  the  Laws  of  1904. 

The  Act  now  existing,  Chapter  135,  Laws  of  1907,  is  short  and  shows  the  relation 
of  the  Board  of  Health  of  New  Jersey  to  New  York  harbor  and  to  the  project  of  the 
Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  last  section  of  the 
law  specifically  states  that  this  Act  does  not  repeal  or  in  any  way  affect  or  modify  the 
provisions  of  any  Act  conferring  power  and  authority  upon  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewer- 
age Commissioners.  The  conditions  of  sewage  disposal  in  the  Passaic  valley,  relating 


r>06  DATA    COLLECTED 

as  they  do  to  a  population  which  amounts  to  28  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population  of 
the  State,  are  wholly  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commis- 
sion and  cannot  be  regulated  by  any  other  body,  except  the  Legislature  itself. 

So  far  as  ascertained,  the  New  Jersey  Law  has  never  been  invoked  to  protect  the 
harbor  of  New  York  against  pollution,  although  it  lia.s  been  used  to  stop  local 
nuisances  due  to  sewage  along  the  Hoboken  docks,  and  is  in  force  to  prevent  excessive 
pollution  of  the  waters  of  the  New  Jersey  metropolitan  district  outside  of  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Passaic  Valley  Commission. 

The  Passaic  Valley  Commission  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  protecting  the  Passaic 
river  against  sewage  pollution  and  has  no  responsibility  with  respect  to  the  pollution 
of  New  York  harbor.  The  original  Act  which  created  a  Passaic  valley  commission  was 
enacted  February  26,  1896.  The  original  Act  under  which  the  Passaic  valley  sewerage 
district  was  created  was  approved  March  27,  1902.  This  Act  was  amended  April  22, 
1903. 

Principal  Lairs  of  New  Jersey  with  Respect  to  tfeicaye  Disposal.  Following  is 
the  text  of  the  principal  law  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey  with  respect  to  the  disposal  of 
sewage,  outside  of  the  Passaic  valley,  except  the  Law  of  1899  which  provides  for  the 
formation  of  sewerage  districts  and  under  which  the  Passaic  Valley  Commission  was 
organized.  It  is  Chapter  135  of  the  Laws  of  1907: 

1.  The  State  Sewerage  Commission  is  hereby  authorized  and  empowered  to 
inspect  any  of  the  waters  of  this  State,  and  if  it  finds  any  of  the  waters  of  this 
State  are  being  polluted  in  such  manner  as  to  cause  or  threaten  injury  to  any  of 
the  inhabitants  of  this  State,  either  in  health,  comfort  or  property,  it  shall  be 
its  duty  to  notify,  in  writing,  any  person,  municipal  or  private  corporation 
found  to  be  polluting  said  waters  that  prior  to  a  time  to  be  fixed  by  said  com- 
mission, which  time  shall  not  be  more  than  five  years  from  the  date  of  said 
notice,  said  person  or  corporation  must  cease  to  pollute  said  waters  and  make 
such  other  disposition  of  the  sewage  or  other  polluting  matter  as  shall  be  ap- 
proved by  said  commission;  any  person  or  corporation  aggrieved  by  any  such 
finding  may  appeal  therefrom  to  the  Court  of  Chancery  at  any  time  within  three 
months  after  being  notified  thereof;  and  the  said  Court  is  hereby  authorized  and 
empowered  to  hear  and  determine  such  appeal  in  a  summary  manner,  according 
to  its  course  and  practice  in  other  cases,  and  thereupon  to  affirm,  reverse  or 
modify  the  finding  of  said  commission  in  such  manner  as  it  may  deem  just  and 
reasonable. 

2.  The  State  Sewerage  Commission  is  hereby  authorized  to  apply  to  the 
Court  of  Chancery  for  writ  of  injunction  to  prevent  any  violation  of  or  enforce 
the  provisions  of  this  act  and  the  act  to  which  this  is  a  supplement,  and  it  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  said  court,  in  a  summary  way,  to  hear  and  determine  the 
merits  of  said  application;  and  in  all  such  cases  to  restrain  violation  of  or  en- 
force the  provisions  of  the  said  acts. 


JURISDICTION   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  507 

3.  "  Waters  of  this  State,"  as  used  in  this  act  and  the  act  to  which  this  is 
a  supplement,  shall  include  the  ocean  and  its  estuaries,  all  springs,  streams  and 
bodies  of  surface  or  ground  water,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  within  the 
boundaries  of  this  State  or  subject  to  its  jurisdiction. 

4.  All  acts  or  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  this  act  are  hereby  repealed, 
and  this  act  shall  take  effect  immediately;  provided,  that  this  act  shall  not  re-" 
peal  or  in  any  way  affect  or  modify  the  provisions  of  any  act  conferring  power 
and  authority  upon  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission  in  relation  to  the 
purification  of  the  Passaic  river  and  the  streams  tributary  thereto,  and  particu- 
larly shall  not  be  deemed  taken  or  held  to  modify  or  affect  the  provisions  of  an 
act  relating  to  the  purification  of  the  waters  of  the  Passaic  river,  within  the 
Passaic  valley  sewerage  district,  approved  March  eighteenth,  one  thosuand  nine 
hundred  and  seven. 

Practical  Results  of  Neto  Jersey's  Jurisdiction.  In  the  administration  of  its  laws 
tlie  New  Jersey  Sewerage  Commission  and  the  New  Jersey  State  Board  of  Health 
have  made  inspections,  given  advice,  served  formal  notices  to  abate  pollution,  super- 
vised upwards  of  70  disposal  plants  and  ordered  a  number  of  suits  for  injunctions  to 
enforce  its  orders  with  respect  to  sewage  disposal.  Since  the  jurisdiction  of  the  com- 
mission over  the  ocean  shores  of  the  State  was  restored,  progress  has  been  made  in 
bringing  about  a  sanitary  disposal  of  the  sewage  wastes  which  formerly  in  large 
quantity  fouled  the  beaches  and  bathing  places  of  the  crowded  summer  resorts  of 
Monmouth  County.  The  commission  has  also  done  much  to  call  attention  to  the 
unsanitary  and  dangerous  conditions  of  sewage  pollution  connected  with  the  extensive 
shellfish  industries  of  New  Jersey.  Nothing  has  been  done  to  suppress  the  evils  of 
pollution  of  Xew  York  harbor,  except  in  strictly  local  circumstances.  The  project 
of  the  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commission,  for  the  benefit  of  whose  plans  much  of  the 
Legislation  regulating  the  State's  jurisdiction  over  sewage  disposal  has  been  passed, 
docs  not  require  comment  here. 

JURISDICTION  BY  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 

Jurisdiction  by  the  State  of  New  York  over  the  disposal  of  sewage  is  exercised 
under  the  Public  Health  Law  by  the  State  Commissioner  of  Health. 

General  Powers  and  Duties  of  the  Health  Commissioner.  The  general  duties  and 
powers  of  the  Commissioner  require  that  he  shall  take  cognizance  of  the  interests  of 
health  and  life  of  the  people  of  the  State  in  all  matters  pertaining  thereto.  The  Law 
states  that  he  shall  obtain,  collate  and  preserve  such  information  referring  to  mortal- 
ity, disease  and  health  as  may  be  useful  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  or  may  contrib- 
ute to  the  promotion  of  health  or  the  security  of  life  in  the  state.  He  may  reverse  OP 
modify  any  order,  regulation,  by-law  or  ordinance  of  a  local  board  of  health  concern- 


508  DATA    COLLECTED 

ing  a  matter  which,  in  his  judgment,  affects  the  public  health  beyond  the  territory  over 
which  such  local  board  has  jurisdiction.  The  Commissioner  has  all  necessary  powers 
to  make  examinations  into  nuisances  or  questions  affecting  the  security  of  life  and 
health  in  any  locality. 

The  Governor  of  the  State  may  require  the  Commissioner  of  Health  to  make 
examinations  and  report,  and  these  reports,  when  approved  by  the  Governor,  enable  the 
latter  to  declare  matters  public  nuisances  which  may  be  found  and  certified  in  such 
reports  to  be  nuisances  and  the  Governor  may  order  them  to  be  changed,  abated  or 
removed,  as  he  may  think  proper.  It  is  customary  for  the  Governor  to  follow  this 
course  of  action  when  circumstances  require. 

Specific  Powers  of  the  Health  Commissioner  with  Respect  to  Sewage  Disposal. 
Article  5,  Section  75,  of  the  Public  Health  Law,  states  that  no  person,  corporation  or 
municipality  shall  place  or  cause  to  be  placed  or  discharged  into  any  waters  of  the 
State,  unless  permitted  by  the  State  Commissioner  of  Health,  any  decomposable  or 
putrescible  matter  of  any  kind  or  any  substance  injurious  to  the  public  health.  Ex- 
ception is  made  of  such  wastes  as  come  from  drains  or  sewers  already  in  operation  or 
from  extensions  or  modifications  of  the  same,  provided  the  refuse  or  waste  matter 
discharged  therefrom  is  not  materially  changed  or  increased.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
this  exception  does  not  permit  any  material  increase  in  the  discharge  of  sewage,  nor 
does  it  permit  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  a  sewer  system  which  has  been  extended, 
modified  or  constructed  subsequent  to  the  passage  of  this  act. 

Compulsory  Reports  from  Municipalities.  Provision  for  reports  as  to  conditions 
of  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  is  made  in  Section  79  of  Article  5  of  the  Public  Health 
Law.  This  section  states  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  public  authorities  having  by  law 
charge  of  the  sewer  system  of  any  municipality  in  the  State  from  which  sewage  is 
discharged  into  the  waters  of  the  State  to  file  with  the  board  of  health  of  the  munici- 
pality in  which  an  outlet  is  located  a  report  of  each  sewerage  system  having  an  out- 
let within  the  municipality  concerned.  This  report  must  comprise  such  facts  and  in- 
formation as  the  State  Commissioner  of  Health  may  require  and  is  to  be  placed  on 
blanks  or  forms  to  be  furnished  by  him  on  application.  The  local  board  of  health  being 
satisfied  as  to  the  correctness  and  completeness  of  the  report,  the  board  shall  within 
30  days  after  its  receipt  certify  the  same  and  transmit  it  to  the  State  Commissioner 
of  Health.  Such  report,  when  satisfactory  to  the  State  Commissioner  of  Health,  shall 
be  filed  by  him  in  his  office  and  shall  constitute  evidence  of  exemption  from  the  pro- 
hibtion  of  the  Public  Health  Law.  No  sewerage  system  is  exempt  from  prohibition 
for  which  a  satisfactory  report  has  not  been  filed  in  the  office  of  the  State  Commis- 
sioner of  Health  in  accordance  with  this  section. 


JURISDICTION   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  509 

Penalties.  Section  79d,  Article  5,  of  the  Public  Health  Law,  specifies  the  penalty 
which  may  be  imposed  for  failure  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  Health 
Commissioner.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any  public  sewer  system 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  without  filing  a  report  is  $50.  The  penalty  for 
the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any  new  or  extended  public  sewer  system  into  any  of 
the  waters  of  the  State  without  a  duly  issued  permit  is  $500,  and  the  further  pen- 
alty of  $50  per  day  for  each  day  the  offense  is  maintained.  The  penalty  for  discharg- 
ing refuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  industrial  establisment  without  a  permit  is  $100 
and  $10  per  day  for  each  day  the  offense  is  continued.  The  penalty  for  discharging 
into  any  waters  of  the  State  any  other  matter  prohibited  by  the  Public  Health 
Law  beside  that  specified  above  is  $25  and  $5  a  day  for  each  day  the  offense  is  main- 
tained. 

Regulations  other  than  the  Health  Law  Applicable  to  Prevent  Pollution  by  Sew- 
aye.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing  health  laws,  the  State  of  New  York  prohibits  the 
pollution  of  water  through  the  forest,  fish  and  game  laws  and  through  the  penal  code. 

Section  52  of  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Laws  of  New  York  State  prohibits  the  dis- 
charge of  dyestuffs,  coal  tar,  refuse  or  other  deleterious  or  poisonous  substances  from 
being  thrown  or  being  allowed  to  run  into  waters  of  the  State  in  quantities  destruc- 
tive of  fish  inhabiting  the  same. 

Section  390  of  the  Penal  Code  prohibits  the  throwing  or  discharging  of  gas  tar 
or  the  refuse  of  a  gas  house  or  gas  factory,  or  offal,  refuse  or  other  noxious  or  pois- 
onous substances  into  any  public  waters  or  into  any  sewer  or  stream  entering  or  run- 
ning into  such  public  waters  and  specifies  that  any  person  who  permits  these  offenses 
is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

Practical  Results.  Within  recent  years  the  State  Department  of  Health  has 
added  materially  to  its  former  usefulness  in  the  matter  of  regulating  the  conditions 
of  sewage  disposal.  It  maintains  a  bureau  of  sanitary  engineering  to  assist  it  in  exer- 
cising proper  jurisdiction  over  the  pollution  of  waters  and  the  disposal  of  sewage.  This 
bureau  examines  plans  for  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal,  makes  investigations  rela- 
tive to  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  problems,  and  prepares  plans  for  sewerage  and 
sewage  disposal  for  the  State  institutions.  Investigations  are  also  made  of  com- 
plaints relating  to  stream  pollution  and  of  various  other  technical  subjects.  The  net 
result  of  this  work  has  been  beneficial  to  the  State  and  has  led  to  a  better  general 
understanding  of  the  question  of  pollution  of  water  by  sewage  and  its  danger  to  the 
public  health  and  welfare. 

The  State  Department  of  Health  exercises  jurisdiction  over  sewerage  and  sewage 
disposal  in  the  metropolitan  sewerage  district  up  to,  but  not  including,  the  limits  of 


510  DATA    COLLECTED 

tbe  City  of  New  York.  It  has,  however,  made  inspections  of  the  sewage  disposal  plants 
in  the  City  of  New  York  and  printed  descriptions  of  them  in  the  1907  annual  report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Health. 

The  Department  has  taken  no  positive  attitude  with  respect  to  the  discharge  of 
sewage  into  the  harbor  of  New  York  although  it  was  expected  to  take  a  definite  posi- 
tion with  regard  to  it  in  connection  with  the  Bronx  valley  sewerage  project.  A  re- 
port was  made  by  the  sanitary  engineering  bureau  of  the  State  Department  of  Health, 
which  was  favorable  to  the  enterprise.  The  Commissioner  was  preparing  to  give  the 
plans  his  official  sanction  or  disapproval  Avhen  he  was  relieved  of  the  duty  of  taking 
action  upon  them  by  the  Attorney  General  of  the  State,  who,  upon  request,  furnished 
the  State  Commissioner  of  Health  and  the  State  Engineer  and  Surveyor  with  an  opin- 
ion to  the  effect  that  the  Bronx  valley  project  had  been  taken  by  special  legislation  out 
of  their  respective  jurisdictions. 

The  Bronx  Valley  Commission,  like  the  Passaic  Valley  Commission,  exists  for 
the  specific  purpose  of  sanitating  a  river  valley  by  the  construction  of  a  trunk  sewer 
which  is  to  discharge  into  New  York  harbor.  The  Bronx  Valley  Commission  is  not 
charged  with  the  duty  of  protecting  the  purity  of  the  harbor  waters. 

JURISDICTION  BY  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 

Local  authority  over  systems  of  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  \vithin  the  limits 
of  The  City  of  New  York  is  divided  between  the  Borough  Presidents,  the  Board  of 
Estimate  and  Apportionment,  the  Board  of  Health  and  the  Board  of  Aldermen. 

Duties  of  Borough  Presidents.  When  the  Charter  of  the  City  was  adopted  all 
powers  and  duties  which  had  been  conferred  upon  any  of  the  officers  of  The  City  01 
New  York,  or  any  of  the  other  municipalities  consolidated,  which  in  any  way  related 
to  public  sewers  were  vested  in  The  City  of  New  York  and  as  a  matter  of  administra- 
tion devolved  upon  the  Presidents  of  the  Boroughs. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  Borough  President  of  each  borough  to  devise  and  prepare, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  a  plan  for  the 
proper  sewerage  and  drainage  of  the  borough  over  which  he  presides,  so  far  as  the 
same  has  not  already  been  done.  This  is  clearly  stated  in  Section  444  of  the  Greater 
New  York  Charter. 

The  President  of  each  borough  must,  subject  to  the  same  approval,  lay  out  in  his 
borough  as  many  sewerage  districts  as  may  be  necessary  and  he  must  determine  and 
show  on  suitable  maps  the  location,  course,  size  and  grade  of  each  sewer  and  drain 
proposed  for  each  district  and  prepare  a  complete  plan  of  the  proposed  sewerage 
for  the  whole  territory  over  which  he  has  jurisdiction. 


JURISDICTION   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  511 

Upon  the  completion  of  the  map  for  the  drainage  of  any  district  and  its  approval 
by  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  such  plan  is  to  be  regarded  as  the 
permanent  plan  for  the  sewerage  district.  It  is  subject,  however,  to  such  subsequent 
modifications  as  may,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Borough  President  and  the  Board  of  Esti- 
mate and  Apportionment,  become  necessary  in  consequence  of  alterations  made  in 
the  location  or  grade  of  any  street,  or  for  other  reasons. 

Copies  of  the  formally  approved  map  or  plan  and  of  any  maps  showing  necessary 
modifications  must  be  certified  by  the  Mayor  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Esti- 
mate and  Apportionment,  whereupon  they  are  to  be  filed,  one  copy  in  the  office  of  the 
Corporation  Counsel,  one  in  the  office  of  the  President  of  the  Borough,  and  one  in  the 
office  in  which  conveyances  of  real  estate  are  required  to  be  recorded. 

This  description  of  the  method  of  planning  and  constructing  sewers  shows  clearly 
that  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  was  intended  to  be  a  controlling  cen- 
tral body,  which  would  exercise  jurisdiction  over  the  construction  of  all  sewers  in 
the  different  boroughs  of  the  city.  It  also  shows  that  the  need  of  a  plan  of  sewers 
made  long  in  advance  of  actual  requirements  was  recognized,  and  that  this  plan,  once 
made,  should  be  altered  as  little  as  practicable.  There  is  no  indication  that  a  compre- 
hensive general  plan  was  thought  necessary. 

In  order  to  assist  him  in  devising  proper  sewerage  facilities  the  President  of  each 
borough  may  at  any  time  employ,  when  authorized  by  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Ap- 
portionment and  the  Board  of  Aldermen,  a  consulting  engineer,  who  shall  be  an  ex- 
pert in  all  matters  regarding  sewers  and  highways.  This  engineer  must  have  had  15 
years  experience. 

Discharge  of  Sewafjc.  There  is  no  statement  in  the  Charter  as  to  where  the 
sewage  of  New  York  may  be  discharged  in  order  to  avoid  nuisance  or  injury  to  the 
public  health.  On  the  contrary  it  is  stated  in  Section  392  that  any  overflow  sewers 
which  may  be  deemed  necessary  for  the  relief  of  any  sewers  now  constructed  or  which 
may  hereafter  be  constructed  in  the  city  shall  be  discharged  into  the  waters  ad- 
jacent to  the  city  or  into  the  Gowanus  canal  or  into  any  other  canal  or  inlet  at  such 
points  as,  in  the  judgment  of  the  President  of  the  Borough,  may  be  most  convenient. 
It  was  in  accordance  with  this  section,  that  so-called  overflow  sewers  were  constructed 
so  as  to  discharge  into  Gowanus  canal,  with  the  result  of  polluting  the  waters  of  that 
canal  beyond  permissible  limits. 

Temporary  and  Private  Seicers.  Provision  is  made  in  Sections  394  and  395  of 
the  City  Charter  for  the  construction  of  temporary  sewers  by  the  City  and  private 
sewers  by  individuals. 


512  DATA    COLLECTED 

A  borough  president  may  construct  a  sewer  or  drain  for  the  purpose  of  prevent- 
ing damage  to  property  or  to  avoid  a  nuisance  or  when  it  becomes  impracticable  to 
proceed  immediately  to  the  construction  of  a  sewer  in  accordance  with  a  plan  pre- 
viously adopted.  Construction  of  temporary  sewers,  also,  requires  the  approval  of  the 
Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment. 

Private  sewers  can  be  constructed  without  the  consent  of  the  Board  of  Estimate 
and  Apportionment,  provided  they  conform  to  the  general  plan  of  sewerage  for  the 
district  in  which  they  are  to  be  located  and  certain  other  formalities  are  complied 
with.  These  private  sewers  become  the  property  of  The  City  of  New  York  and  are 
deemed  to  be  fully  dedicated  to  the  City  when  their  total  cost  is  fully  paid  by  the 
owners  of  the  abutting  property. 

Sewage  Disposal  Works.  Power  to  construct  and  maintain  sewage  disposal  plants 
and  their  necessary  appurtenances  is  granted  with  the  authority  to  construct  sewers, 
and  this  work  is  done  in  compliance  with  the  same  laws  and  regulations  which  apply 
to  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  sewers,  it  being  the  intent  and  meaning  of 
Section  401  of  the  Charter  that  sewage  disposal  works  shall  be  construed  as  part  and 
parcel  of  a  sewer. 

Inasmuch  as  the  sewage  of  New  York  is,  for  the  most  part,  discharged  into  the 
harbor  and  its  tributaries  without  regard  for  consequences,  the  number  of  sewage 
disposal  works  which  have  been  built  is  small.  A  half-dozen  plants  have  been  con- 
structed to  purify  sewage  before  discharging  it  upon  low-lying  meadow  lands  through 
which  it  would  otherwise  flow  for  a  considerable  distance  before  reaching  the  ocean 
and  these  plants  have  been  built  and  maintained  by  the  Borougli  Presidents  without 
permission,  advice  or  regard  for  the  opinions  or  regulations  of  any  health  authority. 

Local  Board  of  Health  Control.  It  is  specified  in  Section  1168  of  the  City  Char- 
ter that  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  Board  of  Health  shall  extend  over  The  City  of 
New  York  and  the  waters  adjacent  thereto  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  City  and 
over  the  waters  of  the  bay  within  the  quarantine  limits  established  by  law,  but  shall 
not  be  held  to  interfere  with  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  Commissioners  of  Quaran- 
tine or  the  Health  Officer  of  the  Port. 

The  Commissioners  of  Quarantine,  now  abolished,  and  the  Health  Officer  of  the 
Port,  their  executive  officer  who  now  remains  in  office,  have  never  had  anything  to  do 
with  sewerage  or  sewage.  Their  concern  has  exclusively  been  in  managing  the  quar- 
antine of  the  Port  of  New  York  for  the  State. 

The  head  of  the  Department  of  Health  is  called  the  Board  of  Health.  This  Board 
consists  of  one  Commissioner,  the  Police  Commissioner  of  the  City  and  the  Health 


JURISDICTION    IN   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  513 

Officer  of  the  Port.  The  Commissioner  of  Health  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  Health 
Department. 

Section  1169  of  the  Charter  states  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Board  of  Health  to 
aid  the  enforcement  and,  so  far  as  practicable,  to  enforce  the  laws  of  the  State  ap- 
plicable in  The  City  of  New  York  to  the  care,  promotion  and  protection  of  human 
life. 

The  Law  under  which  the  Board  acts  is  intended  to  include  all  necessary  laws  rel- 
ative to  cleanliness  and  sanitary  supervision.  The  City  Charter  specifies  that  care 
shall  be  exercised  by  the  Board  of  Health  over  the  public  water  supply,  but  says  noth- 
ing about  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  the  harbor. 

The  Sanitary  Code.  The  Board  of  Health  is  authorized  by  the  Charter  to  pass 
on  and  publish  such  regulations  for  the  security  of  life  and  health  in  The  City  of 
New  York  as  may  be  required  and  to  this  end  to  make  certain  regulations.  The  reg- 
ulations of  the  Board  constitute  what  is  known  as  the  Sanitary  Code.  They  may  be 
enforced  by  such  tines,  penalties  and  imprisonment  as  are  prescribed  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  ordinances  of  the  City. 

The  Board  of  Health  may  include  in  the  Sanitary  Code  all  matters  and  subjects 
over  which  the  power  and  authority  of  the  Department  extend,  not  limiting  their  ap- 
plication to  the  subject  of  health  only. 

The  Board  is  not  required  to  confine  itself  to  the  abilities  of  its  staff  of  regular 
employees.  It  is  permitted  from  time  to  time  by  Section  1186  of  the  Charter  to 
employ  a  suitable  person  or  persons  to  render  sanitary  engineering  service  and  to 
make  or  supervise  practical  scientific  investigations  and  examinations  in  the  city  re- 
quiring engineering  skill  and  to  prepare  plans  and  reports  relative  thereto.  The  De- 
partment has  a  sanitary  engineer  regularly  employed  on  its  staff. 

Practical  Work  of  the  City  Department  of  Health.  The  Sanitary  Code  contains 
several  regulations  with  respect  to  the  disposal  of  sewage.  It  is  stated  in  Section  38 
that  no  person  or  persons  or  corporation  shall  permit  sewage  or  drainage,  factory 
refuse  or  foul  or  offensive  liquid  or  other  material  to  discharge  into  the  waters  of  any 
river,  stream,  canal,  harbor,  bay  or  estuary  or  into  the  sea  within  the  city  limits, 
except  under  low  water  mark  and  in  such  manner  and  under  such  conditions  that  no 
nuisance  can  be  caused  thereby. 

The  discharge  of  gas  tar  and  other  offensive  wastes  from  gas  houses  into  the  pub- 
lic waters  or  sewers  connected  therewith  is  prohibited  by  Section  89  of  the  Sanitary 
Code. 

Prompt  removal  of  sewage  from  the  sewers  is  provided  for  in  Section  28.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  boards,  departments  and  officers  having  the  power  to  do  so  to  cause 


514  DATA    COLLECTED 

sufficient  water  to  be  used  and  other  adequate  means  taken  so  that  whatever  sub- 
stances may  enter  any  sewer  "shall  pass  speedily  along  and  from  the  same  and  suf- 
ficiently far  into  some  water  or  proper  reservoir,  so  that  no  accumulation  shall  take 
place  and  no  exhalation  proceed  therefrom  dangerous  or  prejudicial  to  life 
or  health." 

The  Code  provides  in  Section  26,  that  no  bathing  establishment  shall  be  main- 
tained in  The  City  of  New  York  or  along  the  waterfront  of  the  city  without  a  per- 
mit from  the  Board  of  Health. 

By  a  recent  provision  of  the  Code,  Section  185,  it  is  unlawful  to  hold,  keep  and 
offer  oysters  for  sale  without  a  permit  in  writing  from  the  Board  of  Health  and  sub- 
ject to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  said  Board. 

Other  sections  of  the  Sanitary  Code  relate  to  the  proper  management  of  plumb- 
ing, cesspools  and  privies.  The  Department  exercises  its  jurisdiction  to  prevent  the 
pollution  of  drinking  water,  but  not  to  prevent  insanitary  conditions  at  the  sewer  out- 
falls. In  the  year  1907  over  1,000  inspections,  resulting  in  about  500  orders,  were 
made  by 'the  Department  of  Health  to  abate  the  pollution  of  the  water  supplies  of 
Staten  Island.  Eventually  the  Department  ordered  that  the  water  company  supply- 
ing the  water  discontinue  the  use  of  the  surface  water  complained  of  until  the  com- 
pany could  provide  itself  with  filter  beds. 

The  Department  of  Health  causes  systematic  inspections  to  be  made  of  the  shores 
of  the  Boroughs  of  Brooklyn  and  Richmond  and  collects  and  disposes  of  much  offal 
which  has  been  carried  to  the  shores  by  the  harbor  waters.  In  the  year  1907  the  num- 
ber of  inspections  was  4,941;  the  number  of  bodies  of  men  and  animals  found  and 
disposed  of  was  4,421,  and  the  number  of  parts  of  animals  and  of  clothing  and  bed- 
ding was  much  greater. 

A  perusal  of  the  foregoing  statements  concerning  the  powers  and  duties  and 
work  of  the  Department  of  Health  shows  that  authority  is  not  lacking,  that 
good  is  accomplished  by  it,  but  that  the  Board  of  Health  exercises  no  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  the  waters  of  New  York  harbor.  The  Board 
does  not  prevent  accumulations  of  solid  matters  in  the  sewers  nor  the  escape  of  exhala- 
tions from  them. 

Board  of  Aldermen.  In  addition  to  the  powers  of  the  Board  of  Health  the  Board 
of  Aldermen  have  power  to  make  regulations  concerning  the  public  bathing  establish- 
ments which  are  situated  along  the  waterfront,  often  close  to  sewer  outfalls.  Para- 
graph 12  of  Section  9  of  the  Charter  gives  the  Board  of  Aldermen  power  to  regulate 
swimming  and  bathing  in  the  waters  of  the  city,  to  establish  and  maintain  such  public 
baths  and  public  comfort  stations  as  may  be  necessary  and  to  establish  suitable  rules 
and  regulations  for  the  management  of  the  same. 


JURISDICTION   IN   THE   METROPOLITAN   DISTRICT  515 

LEGAL  JURISDICTION  PROPOSED  BY  THE  NEW  YORK  CHARTER  COMMISSION  OF  1909 

By  changes  proposed  by  the  Charter  Commission  relative  to  sewerage  and 
sewage  disposal  in  The  City  of  New  York  the  duty  of  making  plans  for  improvements 
in  The  City  of  New  York  are  placed  within  the  province  of  a  bureau  of  public  improve- 
ments and  engineering  under  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  while  the  ex- 
ecutive work  of  building  sewers  and  sewage  disposal  works  will  fall  to  a  bureau  of 
sewers  under  the  department  of  street  control. 

Careful  study  of  the  plan  of  reorganization  fails  to  reveal  specific  mention  of  a 
comprehensive  plan  of  sewage  disposal  and  the  question  of  sewerage  itself  receives 
scant  attention. 

The  Bureau  of  I'ulilie  Improvements  and  Engineering' of  the  Board  of  Estimate 
and  Apportionment.  The  Borough  Presidents  would  be  relieved  of  administrative 
duties  such  as  they  now  perform  and  would  give  their  undivided  time  and  attention 
to  the  work  of  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  which  would  then  become  the 
great  financial  executive  committee  of  the  City.  For  the  more  perfect  co-ordination  of 
the  City  business,  greater  protection  of  its  rights,  better  preservation  of  its  property, 
the  establishment  of  large  economies  in  its  purchases,  and  a  comprehensive  and  system- 
atic plan  for  its  growth,  a  number  of  new  bureaus  would  be  created  in  the  Board  of 
Estimate  and  Apportionment.  One  of  the  many  subdivisions  would  be  a  bureau  of 
Public  Improvements  and  Engineering.  The  head  of  this  bureau  would  be  an  engineer 
resident  in  the  city  and  of  at  least  10  years'  professional  experience.  He  would  be 
known  as  City  Engineer. 

Among  its  manifold  duties  the  new  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  would 
have  charge  of  the  mapping  and  planning  of  the  city  and  would  lay  out  new  streets, 
parks,  bridges  and  tunnels,  widen,  straighten,  extend,  alter  and  close  existing  streets, 
and  fix,  establish  and  change  the  grades  of  streets.  It  would  select  the  sources  for 
the  supply  of  drinking  water  and  buy  property  needed  for  the  same. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Department  of  Health  would  remain  practically  the 
same  as  the}"  now  exist.  It  is  specified  that  there  shall  be  in  the  Department,  in  addi- 
tion to  such  other  bureaus  and  offices  as  may  be  established  therein  by  the  Board  of 
Estimate  and  Apportionment,  a  bureau  of  sanitation,  the  chief  officer  of  which  shall 
be  called  the  sanitary  superintendent,  who,  at  the  time  of  his  appointment,  shall  have 
been  for  at  least  10  years  a  practising  physician  and  for  three  years  a  resident  of  the 
city. 

No  reference  to  sewerage  or  the  disposal  of  sewage  is  made  in  that  part  of  the  pro- 
posed Charter  which  relates  to  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  Department  of  Health. 


516  DATA    COLLECTED 

The  Bureau  of  Sewers  of  the  Department  of  Street  Control.  The  department  of 
street  control  would  be  presided  over  by  a  commissioner  who  would  have  charge  of 
the  sweeping  and  cleaning  of  streets,  removing  or  otherwise  disposing  of  ashes,  street 
sweepings,  garbage,  dead  animals,  offal,  light  refuse  and  rubbish,  the  removal  of  snow 
and  ice,  regulating,  curbing,  flagging  and  guttering  streets  and  laying  crosswalks,  fill- 
ing sunken  lots,  issuing  permits  to  use  and  open  streets,  constructing,  maintaining,  re- 
pairing and  cleaning  sewers  and  drains,  the  location,  establishment,  care,  erection  and 
maintenance  of  baths,  public  urinals  and  public  comfort  stations  and  preparing  a  map 
of  all  existing  underground  pipes,  mains,  sewers  and  other  subsurface  structures,  and 
performing  a  large  number  of  other  duties.  Under  the  commissioner  of  street  control 
would  be  a  number  of  bureaus,  and  among  them  a  bureau  of  sewers,  the  head  of  which 
would  be  known  as  the  chief  of  the  sewer  bureau. 

The  commissioner  could,  when  authorized  by  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Appor- 
tionment, employ  a  consulting  engineer,  who  should  be  expert  in  all  matters  relating 
to  sewers  and  highways.  This  engineer  should  have  had  10  years'  professional  experi- 
ence. The  power  of  constructing  sewers  and  drains  would  include  the  power  to  con- 
struct, operate  and  maintain  sewage  disposal  works  and  their  necessary  appurtenances. 
The  cost  of  conducting  sewage  disposal  works  would,  in  the  discretion  of  the  Board  of 
Estimate  and  Apportionment,  be  in  Avhole  or  in  part  an  assessment  upon  the  property 
benefited. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
SALINITY  OF  THE  WATERS 

The  investigations  described  in  this  chapter  were  made  in  order  to  determine  the 
proportions  of  land  water  and  sea  water  in  New  York  harbor  throughout  the  year. 
The  results  show  the  conditions  observed  at  11  different  points,  mostly  at  light-vessels 
and  lighthouses,  including  Ambrose  Light  at  the  sea  entrance  to  the  harbor,  Passaic 
Light  in  Newark  bay,  Governors  Island  in  Upper  New  York  bay,  Throgs  Neck  at  the 
Sound  entrance  of  the  East  river,  and  Tarrytown  in  the  Hudson  river. 

The  data  corroborate  in  an  interesting  manner  many  of  the  facts  brought  out  in 
the  tidal  studies  described  in  Part  III,  Chapter  III  of  this  report.  Among  further  de- 
tails the  information  is  of  service  in  showing  how  large  is  the  normal  amount  of  sea 
water  in  the  harbor  and  how  variable  is  the  flushing  action  which  the  rivers  produce 
upon  the  harbor  at  different  seasons  of  year. 

In  addition  to  the  routine  examinations  which  were  made  at  the  light-vessels  and 
lighthouses  numerous  observations  were  made  from  time  to  time  for  special  purposes 
at  other  points.  The  method  of  examination  was  in  all  cases  the  same. 

SECTION  I 
KOUTINE  OBSERVATIONS 

The  tests  of  salinity  were  made  by  noting  the  specific  gravity  of  the  water  by 
means  of  simple,  yet  accurate,  apparatus.  When  suitably  interpreted,  these  gave  the 
salinity  of  the  water.  By  assuming  that  the  salinity  was  due  to  sodium  chloride,  an 
assumption  which  was  a  sufficiently  close  approximation  to  the  truth,  the  amount  of 
chlorine,  which  is  a  familiar  term  in  water  analysis,  could  be  determined. 

Method  Adopted.  Specific  gravity  determinations  were  employed  because  they 
could  be  rapidly  and  easily  made  by  men  who  were  neither  trained  chemists  nor  expert 
in  the  handling  of  delicate  apparatus  and  who  were,  nevertheless,  capable  of  making 
regular  observations  with  a  simple  outfit.  The  Hilgard  Ocean  Salinometer,  which  is  a 
standard  instrument  for  such  work,  was  found  to  be  too  fragile  for  the  use  proposed, 
and  it,  moreover,  required  that  the  water  to  be  tested  should  be  brought  to  a  standard 
temperature.  A  salinometer  was,  therefore,  designed  especially  for  this  work.  It 
consisted  of  a  specific  gravity  float  or  hydrometer  with  a  thermometer  in  its  centre. 


518  DATA    COLLECTED 

By  this  arrangement  the  thermometer  and  hydrometer  could  be  read  almost  simultan- 
eously with  small  chance  of  error.  The  height  of  the  hydrometer  was  about  30.5  cm. 
The  range  of  the  hydrometer  scale  was  from  1.000  to  1.030,  and  the  range  of  the  ther- 
mometer scale  was  from  20  degrees  to  110  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  readings  of  the  ther- 
mometer and  hydrometer  were  recorded  by  the  observers  in  notebooks  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  and  these  records  were  subsequently  transcribed  and  reduced  to  an  equivalent 
of  the  specific  gravity  readings  at  GO  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Standards.  Before  the  tests  were  begun  it  became  necessary  to  establish  stand- 
ards for  what  is  here  termed  land  water  and  sea  water,  in  order  that  a  clear  and  defi- 
nite idea  might  be  conveyed  Avhen  using  either  expression  and  in  order  to  calculate  the 
relative  salinity  present.  Laud  water  is  the  term  used  by  the  Commission  to  designate 
the  water  of  inland  rivers  and  streams  and  is  distinguished  from  sea  water,  which  is  the 
\vater  of  the  ocean  beyond  appreciable  influence  of  water  from  the  land.  The  term  fresh 
water  lias  not  been  used  in  connection  with  this  work,  since  the  quality  of  freshness 
may  be  possessed  by  any  water  irrespective  of  its  saline  character. 

The  salinity  of  sea  water  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  ocean  according  to  the 
quantity  of  salts  present  in  solution,  but  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  it  may  be  taken 
to  contain  18,000  parts  of  chlorine  per  million  parts  of  water.  The  specific  gravity  of 
water  of  this  salinity  is  1.025.  The  salinometers  were  graduated  to  differences  of 
0.0005,  corresponding  to  3GO  parts  of  chlorine.  Errors  of  reading  were  probably  not 
over  one  per  cent. 

Analytical  determinations  of  the  amount  of  chlorine  present  in  samples  of  water 
were  made  for  comparison  with  the  amounts  calculated  to  be  present  by  the  use  of  the 
salinometer,  with  the  results  shown  in  Table  I. 


SALINITY  OF  THE  WATEKS 
TABLE  I 


519 


COMPARISON  BETWEEN  CHLORINE  IN  WATER  AS  ESTIMATED  BY  SALINOMETERS  AND  BY 

ANALYSIS 


Salinometer  readings 

Number  of  tests 

Estimated  Chlorine 

Actual  Chlorine  Average 
of  tests 

1.007 

6 

5,040 

4,946 

1.0105 

1 

7,560 

7,432 

1.011 

2 

7,920 

7,888 

1.0113 

1 

8,136 

7,923 

1.012 

5 

8,640 

8,659 

1.0125 

1 

9,000 

8,772 

1.0128 

1 

9,216 

9-125 

1.013 

1 

9,360 

9,550 

1.0135 

1 

9720 

9,125 

1.014 

1 

10,080 

9,479 

From  these  results  the  method  adopted  is  believed  to  be  sufficiently  accurate  to 
secure  results  correct  within  about  two  per  cent,  after  allowing  for  errors  of  observa- 
tion. 

In  determining  the  correction  to  be  applied  to  reduce  the  ratings  of  the  salino- 
meter  and  thermometer  to  the  reading  which  would  occur  at  the  standard  temperature 
of  GO  degrees  Fahrenheit  the  instruments  were  immersed  and  read  in  solutions  of  vary- 
ing salinity  raised  to  80  degrees  Fahrenheit  and  lowered  to  32  degrees  Fahrenheit,  read- 
ings being  taken  at  each  degree.  The  average  of  a  number  of  these  observations  taken 
for  each  temperature  was  then  plotted  and  a  diagram  showing  the  temperature  correction 
to  be  applied  to  the  readings  as  made  by  the  observers  at  the  several  stations  was  pre- 
pared. 

Location  of  the  Salinometer  Stations.  In  order  to  obtain  the  percentage  of 
land  water  in  the  main  divisions  of  the  harbor  and  at  various  stages  of  tide,  observations 
were  made  with  the  co-operation  of  the  United  States  Lighthouse  Board  at  11  stations 
during  the  year  1909,  as  shown  in  Table  II. 


520 


DATA    COLLECTED 

®TARRYTOWN 


FORT  WASHINGTON  PT 


PAfiBAIC  LIGHT 


AMBROSE  LIGHT 


Location  of  SaKnometer  Stations 


Testing  the  Salinity  of  the  Water  at  Ambrose  Light  Vessel.     In  this  way  the  relative  amount  of  land  and  sea  water 
at  eleven  points  in  the  harbor  was  determined  three  times  each  day  for  a  full  year 


Salinometer  Station.     This  was  one  of  the  eleven  stations  where  tests  were  made  every  day 
for  a  year  to  show  the  amount  of  salt  in  the  water 


SALINITY  OF  THE  WATERS 
TABLE  II 

LOCATION  OF  SALINOMETER  STATIONS 


521 


Ambrose  Lightship 
West  Bank  Light 
(Jreat  Beds  Light 
Fort  Wadsworth 
Bobbins  Beef 
Passaic  Light 
<!overnors  Island 
Fort  Washington  Point 
Tarrytown  Light 
Blackwells  Island 
Tlirogs  Neck 


Atlantic  ocean 

Lower  bay 

Bar i  tan  bay 

The  Narrows 

Upper  bay 

Newark  bay 

Upper  bay 

Hudson  river 

Hudson  river 

East  river 

Entrance  to  Long  Island  Sound 


The  observations  were  made  at  8  a.  in.,  at  noon  and  at  4  p.  m.  daily.  The  observa- 
tions included  in  edch  period  of  five  days  thus  covered  practically  every  hour  of  the 
tide.  The  results  were  therefore  averaged  for  five-day  periods.  The  observations  were 
confined,  for  the  most  part,  to  surface  water. 

Data  Collected.  The  average  results  for  each  month  of  the  year  1909  are  given  in 
Table  III. 

TABLE  III 

SUMMARY  OF  BOUTINE  SALIXOMETER  OBSERVATIONS 
Percentage  of  Land  Water  at  the  Surface 


f 

A 
•** 

1 

•a 

•o 

jfi 

.S 

a 

9 

^ 

t* 

H 

WJ 

53 

o 

£3 

•H 

c 

* 

1909 

sS 

1 

1 

01 

"3 

•32 

J 

3 

go 

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£ 

m 

a 

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1"" 

3 

J3 
H 

All* 

1.3 

19.3 

29.0 

24.9 

30.9 

26.5 

31.7 

65.8 

62.2 

84.6 

15.9 

January  I 

Outj 

19.7 

28.2 

23.3 

29.4 

26.5 

33.1 

63.8 

60.7 

84.8 

15.8 

I 

Int 

18.3 

30.0 

24.6 

33.7 

26.1 

29.2 

67.3 

63.2 

84.5 

16.0 

| 

All 

6.5 

34.2 

50.7 

42.6 

40.5 

35.9 

47.1 

82.2 

83.3 

97.2 

19.3 

February                  \ 

Out 

35.8 

50.8 

41  .8 

39.0 

36.9 

49  5 

81  .0 

83.2 

97.4 

19  8 

In 

33.4 

52.4 

42.8 

43.4 

34.6 

44.1 

84.0 

83.7 

97.0 

18.7 

All 

10.2 

35.0 

50.5 

43.2 

49.3 

37.8 

46.5 

83.4 

84.0 

98.6 

20.8 

March  

Out 

34.5 

49.9 

43.3 

49.1 

38.0 

48.6 

83.5 

83.9 

98.6 

21.2 

In 

34.9 

51.0 

44.4 

49.9 

37.6 

44.5 

83.3 

84.0 

98.7 

20.7 

*  "AH"  means  average  of  all  records  made  during  ebb  and  flood  currents  and  during  slack  water. 
1  "Out"  means  average  of  all  records  made  during  ebb  currents. 
J  "In"  means  average  of  all  records  made  during  flood  currents, 
n  Throgs  Neck:     "In"  means  westerly  currents. 


522 


DATA    COLLECTED 
TABLE  III— Continued 


1909 

0, 

1 

QQ     ** 
O  )  "] 

Ji 

1 

.M 
1 
1 

Fort 
Wadaworth 

DO 

B 

1 

i 

Governors 
Island 

T3 

al 

r 

M 

a 

OS 

B 

j 

i 

d 

o 

S 

.y 
3 

o 

1 

Fort  Wash- 
ington Point 

a 
o 

I 
1 

Throgs  Neckn 

April  .  . 

All 
Out 

10.8 

45.1 
44  3 

64.9 
59  8 

56.1 
55  6 

64.0 
60  1 

45.4 
45  3 

58.2 
59  4 

90.6 
90  3 

94.7 
94  7 

100.0 
100  0 

23.8 
23  5 

In 

45.6 

67.9 

55.8 

67.2 

44.9 

57.0 

90.9 

95.1 

100.0 

24.2 

May  .  . 

All 
Out 

15.6 

42.2 
41  7 

59.1 
56  0 

52.4 
52  5 

59.1 
56  6 

42.3 

41  7 

53.6 
55  5 

86.3 
85  7 

90.6 
90  7 

99.9 
99  8 

24.3 
24  0 

In 

41.6 

61.0 

51.6 

01.0 

42.9 

50.7 

86.8 

90.5 

99.9 

24.5 

June  • 

Air 

Out 

13.0 

27.8 
28  5 

38.4 
38  0 

34.0 
33  6 

39.5 

38  7 

33.7 
34  0 

37.0 
38  9 

67.2 
66  3 

V4.5 
74  4 

93.1 
93  4 

21.8 

21  4 

In 

27.3 

39.1 

33.8 

38.9 

33.4 

36.1 

67.8 

74.7 

92.8 

21.2 

July.. 

All 
Out 

6.9 

17.3 
17  1 

25.5 
24  3 

21.5 
21  1 

25.3 
24  6 

27.7 
96  8 

28.7 
29  3 

51.0 
50  0 

56.0 
56  0 

80.2 
80  4 

18.1 
18  2 

In 

17.5 

28.2 

21.6 

27.5 

28.2 

28.0 

51.8 

55.7 

80.0 

18.0 

I 

August  -1 

All 
Out 

7.2 

18.4 
17  5 

29.5 
28  7 

21.4 
21  6 

24.9 
23  8 

25.5 
26  5 

29.6 
31  4 

52.6 

52  2 

51.8 
52  4 

74.4 
75  2 

17.3 
17  7 

In 

19.4 

30.2 

21.3 

26.0 

24.4 

27.1 

53.  G 

50.0 

73.7 

17.0 

September  \ 

All 
Out 

6.8 

16.2 
16  6 

28.3 

24.8 

18.3 
18  3 

22.2 
19  7 

24.1 
24  3 

26.2 
26  4 

47.5 
47  3 

48.8 
49  0 

73.0 
73  5 

17.1 
16  9 

In 

16.0 

32.3 

18.6 

24.9 

23.8 

25.9 

48.3 

48.3 

72.6 

17.4 

( 

All 

6.0 

15.7 

22.2 

19.6 

24.7 

25.6 

23.9 

46.4 

50.4 

73.8 

15.5 

October  j 

Out 

15.4 

21.5 

19.3 

22.8 

25.2 

24.5 

46.2 

49.5 

74.4 

15.0 

I 

In 

16.0 

25.5 

20.4 

27.0 

26.2 

23.4 

46.1 

50.8 

73.4 

15.9 

November  

All 
Out 

4.6 

15.2 
14  7 

22.7 
22  2 

19.7 
19  7 

25.1 
24  1 

24.2 
24  5 

24.9 
25  0 

45.3 

44  6 

49.4 
49  7 

73.4 
73  5 

13.2 
13  3 

In 

15.7 

23.0 

19.5 

26.4 

23.8 

24.9 

45.8 

48.4 

73.3 

13.2 

December                 J 

All 

Out 

4.6 

17.5 
17  4 

25.3 
23  6 

22.3 
21  9 

30.0 

28  1 

25.7 
2*1  fi 

23.6 

23  2 

57.6 
56  0 

53.7 
53  0 

76.4 
76  5 

11.6 
11  4 

In 

17.9 

27.3 

22.8 

32.5 

25.8 

.23.9 

59.0 

54.4 

76.3 

11.7 

Ail 

7.6 

25.2 

37.2 

31.2 

36.4 

31.9 

35.8 

64.2 

66.3 

85.3 

18.1 

Averages  for  year.  . 

Out 

24.8 

34.8 

30.4 

34.6 

31.9 

37.2 

63.8 

66.3 

85.7 

18.2 

In 

24.1 

37.5 

30.4 

37.0 

31.9 

34.5 

64.9 

65.1 

84.9 

18.1 

nThroga  Neck:    "In"  means  westerly  currents. 


Comments  on  the  Results.  The  influence  of  the  land  water  discharged  by  the  rivers 
during  the  spring  freshets  is  clearly  seen  in  the  relatively  large  percentage  of  land 
water  present  at  all  points  during  April.  The  full  effect  of  this  outflow  was  not  felt  at 


SALINITY  OF  THE  WATERS 


523 


40  = 
0- 


iitiiHiHiiiiiiiiuiiiliiiui^iitiH^  uuiiiii  [IUHUK  MJHMU  w 

MMM!Si|M|U 


QC 


Q 
Z 
< 


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or 

UJ 
0. 


*  JANUARY    -fEBRUARV-     MARCH     -     APRIL      •       MAV        *    JUNE   .    *      JULV       -    AUGUST    *  SEPTEMBER- OCTOBER     -   NOVEMBER-  DECEMBER  • 

1909 


PROPORTIONS  OF  LAND  WATER  AND  SEA  WATER 
IN  NEW  YORK  HARBOR 

TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  OBSERVATIONS  -11.800 


524  DATA    COLLECTED 

Ambrose  Light-vessel  until  May,  when  there  was  an  average  of  15.6  per  cent,  of  land 
water,  or  more  than  twice  the  average  for  the  year.  At  Passaic  Light  there  was  90.6 
per  cent,  in  April  against  64.2  for  the  year;  at  Bobbins  Reef  56.1  per  cent,  against  31.2 
for  the  year;  and  at  Fort  Washington  Point  90.6  per  cent,  against  66.3  for  the  year. 

At  Throgs  Neck  the  maximum  per  cent,  of  land  water  was  24.3  in  May,  as  compared 
with  18.1  per  cent,  for  the  entire  year.  At  Tarrytown  the  records  indicate  that  the 
river  contained  no  sea  water  in  April.  On  the  other  hand,  at  Ambrose  Light-vessel  in 
January  there  was  but  1.3  per  cent,  of  land  water.  The  least  amount  of  land  water 
at  Bobbins  Reef  occurred  in  September,  when  it  amounted  to  18.3  per  cent.  At  Throgs 
Neck  the  least  was  in  December,  being  then  11.6  per  cent. 

Taking  the  year  as  a  whole,  there  was  but  little  difference  recorded  in  the  salinity 
between  outgoing  and  incoming  currents,  but  for  considerable  periods  a  preponderance 
of  land  water  was  observed  on  the  flood  currents  at  certain  stations,  notably  Fort  Wads- 
worth,  Governors  Island  and  Fort  Washington  Point.  Upon  investigation  this  condi- 
tion, which  seems  to  be  unreasonable,  was  found  to  be  due,  at  least  at  Fort  Washing- 
ton Point,  to  an  eddy  which  flowed  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  prevailing 
current  in  the  main  channel  of  the  river,  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  time.  The 
explanation  in  the  other  cases  was  not  apparent.  The  fact  that  samples  were  taken 
from  the  surface  and  near  shore  may  have  influenced  the  results. 

Another  curious  fact  noted  was  that  there  seemed  to  be  more  land  water  at  the 
Narrows  than  in  the  Upper  bay,  although  the  latter  was  farther  from  the  ocean.  The 
figures  average  37.2  per  cent,  for  the  land  water  at  Fort  Wadswortli  and  31.2  per  cent, 
for  the  land  water  at  Robbius  Reef.  It  seems  probable  that  the  larger  amount  of 
land  water  at  Fort  Wadsworth  was  due  to  the  discharge  of  land  water  from  the  Passaic 
and  Hackeusack  rivers  at  the  head  of  Newark  bay.  This  water,  apparently,  passed 
through  the  Kill  van  Kull  and  hugged  the  Staten  Island  shore  on  its  way  out  through 
the  Narrows,  thus  passing  south  of  Robbins  Reef. 

SECTION  II 
MISCELLANEOUS  OBSERVATIONS  OF  SALINITY 

Lower  Bay.  Among  the  more  important  determinations  of  salinity  which  were 
made  at  different  times  and  places  below  the  Narrows  are  those  recorded  in  Table  IV. 
These  observations  were  not  sufficient  in  number  to  warrant  conclusions  of  a  sweeping 
nature,  but  they  are  of  interest  as  showing  the  conditions  which  occur  at  the  times  and 
places  stated. 


SALINITY  OF  THE  WATERS 
TABLE  IV 


525 


RESULTS  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  SALINITY  OBSERVATIONS  AT  VARIOUS  DEPTHS  BELOW  THE 

SURFACE  IN  THE  LOWER  BAY 


Location 

Depth  in 
feet 

Date 

Current 

Per  Cent, 
land  water 

Remarks 

Surface 

1909 
July  21 

Flood 

4 

Temperature  67° 

145 

a       a 

Flood 

0 

Temperature  57° 

Ocean  12  miles  off  Lon<^  Branch   

Surface 

14             It 

Flood 

4 

Temperature  66° 

Ocean  12  miles  off  Lon^  Branch   

150 

tt             11 

Flood 

0 

Temperature  57° 

Ocean  "  Oil  Spot  "  off  Sandy  Hook   

Surface 

II             II 

Ebb 

6 

Temperature  66° 

Sandy  Hook  bay,  off  Shrewsbury  river  

Surface 

"      13 

Flood 

18 

Sandy  Hook  bay,  in  Horseshoe  

Surface 

ft             It 

Flood 

22 

Shrewsbury  river,  Spermaceti  cove  

Surface 

H              tl 

Flood 

23 

Shrewsbury  river,  Seabright  drawbridge    

Surface 

11             it 

Flood 

32 

Bodine  creek  at  mouth     .... 

Surface 

"      17 

Ebb 

34 

Lower  bay,  off  Sandy  Hook      .... 

Surface 

"      21 

Ebb 

10 

Lower  bay,  Ambrose  channel          .             ...          .... 

Surface 

a       a 

Flood 

8 

Lower  bay,  off  Coney  Island  

Surface 

"      14 

Ebb 

16 

f 
Rockaway  inlet  < 

Surface  and^ 

June  29 

Ebb 

16      ) 

Rockaway  inlet  < 

10  feet    j 
Surface  and\ 

July     1 

Flood 

8       1 

6  readings  at  3 
stations 

Jamaica  bay,  off  Bell  Harbor  dock  

10  feet    / 
Surface 

June  29 

Flood 

14 

Jamaica  bay,  off  Bell  Harbor  dock  

10  feet 

ii      ii 

Flood 

14 

Jamaica  bay,  off  Edgemere  

Surface 

ii      if 

Flood 

28 

Jamaica  bay,  off  Canarsie  

Surface 

July     1 

Flood 

8 

Narrows,  midstream  

Surface 

Dec.   15J 

Slack  high 

18 

Craven  shoal,  bell  buoy  

96 
Surface 

ii       ii  j 
\ 
ii       ii 

water 
Slack  high 
water 

Ebb 

16 
16 

Outer  end  Ambrose  channel  

80 
Surface 

ii       if 
ti      if 

Ebb 
Ebb 

14 

4 

Narrows,  midstream  

55 

Surface 

fi       fi 
"      23 

Ebb 
Ebb 

4 

24 

Off  Norton  Point  

48 
96 
Surface 

a      if 
if      fi 
ii      if 

Ebb 
Ebb 
Ebb 

20 
24 
16 

Rockaway  inlet,  gas  buoy  

24 
Surface 

ii      if 
tf       if 

Ebb 
Flood 

8 
10 

45 

ii       fi 

Flood 

10 

526 


DATA    COLLECTED 


The  waters  of  Rockaway  inlet  appear  to  have  been  well  mixed  from  top  to  bottom, 
but  at  most  points  the  surface  water  contained  from  two  to  four  per  cent,  more  land 
water  than  was  present  at  the  bottom. 

The  Narrates.  On  December  28,  1909,  a  series  of  observations  was  made  at  the 
Narrows  to  determine  the  per  cent,  of  land  water  at  different  depths  and  stages  of 
tide  in  the  middle  and  at  each  side  of  the  channel.  The  samples  were  collected  on  an 
imaginary  line  drawn  between  the  tide  gauge  at  Fort  Hamilton  and  Fort  AVadsworth 
Light.  The  results  are  summarized  in  Table  V. 

TABLE  V 

PERCENTAGE  OF  LAND  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS  BELOW  THE  SURFACE  AT  THE  NAR- 
ROWS DURINR  THE  EBB  CURRENT  DECEMBER  28,  1909. 


Time 

50  feet  from  west  side 

Middle  of  channel 

50  feet  from  east  side 

Surface 

Mid-depth 

Bottom 

Surface 

Mid-depth 

Bottom 

Surface 

Mid-depth 

Bottom 

11        A.M. 

.  . 

14 

12 

!4 

11.08A.M. 

18 

14 

14 

11.20A.M. 

20 

16 

16 

11.45A.M. 

18 

14 

16 

12.25A.M. 

20 

16 

16 

12.40A.M. 

16 

16 

10 

1.25P.M. 

16 

16 

16 

1.10P.M. 

16 

16 

14 

2.15P.M. 

20 

20 

20 

2.25P.M. 

20 

20 

20 

2.40P.M. 

18 

16 

18 

3.00P.M. 

18 

20 

20 

3.20P.M. 

18 

20 

18 

3.25P.M. 

•• 

•• 

•• 

20 

18 

18 

The  depth  on  the  west  side  was  about  70  feet;  in  the  channel  it  was  100  feet,  and  on 
the  east  side  it  was  18  feet. 

In  every  case  the  greatest  proportion  of  land  water  was  found  at  the  surface,  but 
the  least  amount  on  the  east  side  was  frequently  found  at  mid-depth. 

Rabbins  Reef.  Several  tests  of  salinity  were  made  at  the  proposed  location  of 
the  Passaic  valley  sewer  near  Bobbins  Reef.  The  results  of  two  days'  work  are  sum- 
marized in  Table  VI. 


SALINITY  OF  THE  WATERS 
TABLE  VI 


527 


PERCENTAGE  OF  LAND  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS  BELOW  THE  SURFACE  AT  BOBBINS 

BEEF  AUGUST  23  AND  SEPTEMBER  1,  1909. 


Date,  1909 

Time 

Surface 

20  feet  depth 

40  feet  depth 

August  23                                .... 

10.45  A.M. 

40 

36 

28 

12        Noon 

34 

30 

24 

1.15  P.M. 

34 

26 

24 

2.00  P.M. 

32 

28 

26 

3.00  P.M. 

34 

24 

24 

3.30  P.M. 

28 

26 

20 

4.15  P.M. 

32 

24 

20 

September  1           .  .            

11.00  A.M. 

20 

16 

16 

12        Noon 

24 

20 

20 

1.00  P.M. 

26 

22 

22 

2.00  P.M. 

22 

24 

22 

3.15  P.M. 

24 

26 

24 

4.15  P.M. 

28 

26 

26 

The  difference  between  the  salinity  of  the  water  at  the  surface  and  at  a  depth  be- 
low the  surface  of  40  feet  was  found  more  marked  at  Bobbins  Beef  than  in  most  other 
places,  the  surface  sometimes  containing  10  per  cent,  more  land  water  than  that  near 
the  bottom,  but  this  condition  was  variable.  A  sample  taken  at  Bobbins  Beef  October 
30,  at  4  p.  m.,  had  a  specific  gravity  of  1.025,  indicating  an  entire  absence  of  land 
water.  Perhaps  this  exceptional  condition  should  be  accounted  for  by  supposing  that  a 
temporary  diversion  of  water  took  place  from  the  more  salty  underrun  to  the  surface. 

A  series  of  observations  was  made  at  Bobbins  Beef  during  the  month  of  Decem- 
ber, 1909,  at  times  of  slack  high  water  and  slack  low  water,  for  purposes  of  compari- 
son. The  results  showed  that  there  was  no  marked  difference  in  the  average 
salinity  at  the  two  stages  of  tide  at  this  point.  The  amount  of  land  water  at  slack 
high  water  varied  from  14  to  32.4  per  cent,  and  at  slack  low  water  from  12  to  36.4 
per  cent. 

In  Appendix  No.  15  of  the  report  of  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 
vey for  1887,  p.  303,  there  is  a  table  from  which  the  percentages  of  land  water  for  each 
lunar  hour  of  tide  have  been  calculated  for  the  Narrows,  as  shown  in  Table  VII. 

Under  normal  conditions  the  ebb  current  began  during  the  10th  lunar  hour. 


:,2s 


DATA    COLLECTED 
TABLE  VII 


PERCENTAGE  OF  LAND  WATER  AT  THE  NARROWS  AT  ALL  HOURS  ACCORDING  TO  THE  UNITED 

STATES  COAST  AND  GEODETIC  SURVEY 


Lunar  Hour 

Per  Cent. 

Lunar  Hour 

Per  Cent. 

0  

45.2 

VI 

40  0 

I    

45.2 

VII 

36  4 

II  

57.6 

VIII  

34  0 

HI  

64.4 

IX 

32  8 

IV   

60  4 

x 

33  6 

V  

56.0 

XI  

33  2 

From  Table  VII  the  percentage  of  land  water  may  be  calculated  to  rahge  from 
38.4  to  22.0  at  a  depth  of  25  feet  below  the  surface  and  from  26.4  to  14.4  at  a  depth 
of  45  feet. 

Upper  Bay,  Kill  van  Kull  and  Arthur  Kill.  A  series  of  observations  was  made 
between  the  Battery  and  Perth  Amboy  on  December  17,  1909,  witli  the  results  shown 
in  Table  VIII. 

TABLE  VIII 

PERCENTAGE    OF    LAND    WATER    AT    THE    SURFACE   AND   BOTTOM   OF   THE   CHANNEL 
THROUGH  THE  UPPER  BAY,  KILL  VAN  KULL  AND  ARTHUR  KILL 


Time 

Location 

Depth 
in  feet 

Surface 

Bottom 

Current 

9  55  A  M 

Mouth  of  Hudson  river  

50 

34 

30 

Flood 

10.40A.M. 
11.25A.M. 
11  40  A  M 

Upper  Bay,  300  feet  north  Greenville  whistling  buoy  
Kill  van  Kull,  between  Staten  Island  and  Bergen  Point  .  .  . 
Kill  van  Kull,  opposite  Shooters  Island  

5-' 
60 
20 

30 
28 
50 

24 
28 
34 

Flood 
Flood 
Flood 

12  05  P  M 

Arthur  Kill,  Elizabethport  

27 

44 

44 

Flood 

12  50  PM 

Arthur  Kill,  south  of  Rahway  river  

25 

44 

40 

Flood 

1  55  PM 

Raritan  river,  Jersey  Central  bridge  

26 

48 

34 

Ebb 

Pier  A,  North  River.  Salinometer  observations  were  made  at  Pier  A  at  the  Bat- 
tery at  noon  and  4  P.  M.  each  day  from  October  15  to  November  9,  inclusive,  the  total 
number  of  tests  in  these  series  being  37.  The  average  amount  of  land  water  varied 
from  19.6  to  38.0  per  cent,  and  averaged  26  per  cent.  Observations  made  at  the  same 
hours  at  Governors  Island,  opposite  Pier  A,  showed  that  the  salinity  varied  from 


SALINITY  OF  THE  WATERS 


529 


17.6  to  37.2,  averaging  23.4  per  cent.  The  higher  salinity  at  Governors  Island  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  waters  from  the  East  river  flow  past  this  part  of  the 
island,  while  the  influence  of  the  less  saline  discharge  from  the  Hudson  is  diverted 
toward  the  cast.  The  result  was  a  difference  of  two  and  one-half  per  cent,  more 
land  water  at  Pier  A  than  at  Governors  Island. 

Hudson  River,  from  tlie  Battery  to  Tnrryloirn.  A  series  of  observations  was 
made  on  the  last  of  the  flood  and  the  first  of  the  ebb  current  along  the  channel  of 
the  Hudson  river  from  opposite  Pier  A  to  Tarrytown  December  14,  1909.  Samples 
were  taken  at  nine  places  from  the  surface,  mid-depth  and  bottom.  Table  IX  gives 
the  percentages  of  land  water  found. 

TABLE  IX 

PERCENTAGE  OF  LAND  WATER  IN  THE  HUDSON  RIVEU  FROM  THE  BATTERY  TO  TARRYTOWN 

DECEMBER  14,  1909 


Time 

Location  Opposite 

Depth 

Surface 

Mid-depth 

Bottom 

10  00  A  M 

Pier  A 

52 

22 

22 

22 

11.05A.M. 

110th  street  

60 

30 

30 

30 

11.35  AJI. 

Fort  Washington  Point  

56 

34 

36 

34 

12.20P.M. 

Mt.  St.  Vincent  

50 

50 

44 

42 

1  17  PM 

Hastings  

50 

60 

52 

50 

1.35P.M. 

Dobbs  Ferry  

50 

66 

58 

56 

2.30P.M. 

Tarrytown  Light  

20 

70 

64 

60 

Table  X  gives  the  results  of  a  second  series  of  samples  collected  during  an  ebb 
current  on  December  22,  1909,  from  the  Hudson  from  the  Battery  to  Tarrytown. 

TABLE  X 

PERCENTAGE  OF  LAND  WATER  IN  THE  HUDSON  RIVER  FROM  THE  BATTERY  TO  TARRYTOWN 

DECEMBER  22,  1909 


Time 

Location  Opposite 

Depth 

Surface 

Mid-depth 

Bottom 

9.30  A.M. 

Pier  A  

55 

30 

26 

26 

10.30  A.M. 

39th  street  .  . 

75 

48 

38 

40 

11.20  A.M. 

110th  street  

50 

52 

50 

48 

12.10  P.M. 

Fort  Washington  Point  

50 

56 

56 

54 

1.15  P.M. 

Mt.  St.  Vincent  

45 

64 

62 

62 

2.00  P.M. 

Harriman  

46 

66 

64 

64 

530 


DATA    COLLECTED 


The  difference  in  the  amount  of  land  water  in  the  Hudson  at  the  two  stages  of 
tide  was  marked.  At  Mt.  St.  Vincent,  for  example,  there  was  14  per  cent,  more  land 
water  at  the  surf  ace  and  20  per  cent,  more  at  the  bottom  on  the  ebb  current  than  at 
slack  high  water.  The  difference  between  the  salinity  of  the  water  at  the  surface  and 
at  the  bottom  was  usually  two  or  three  per  cent.  It  varied  from  0  to  10  per  cent,  more 
in  the  surface  samples  than  in  the  samples  collected  below. 

To  ascertain  the  salinity  of  the  water  in  different  parts  of  a  cross  section  of  the 
Hudson  river  a  series  of  samples  was  taken  at  Fort  Washington  Point  December 
29,  1909.  Water  was  collected  from  the  middle  of  the  river  100  feet  from  the  east 
shore  and  200  feet  from  the  west  shore,  the  depths  to  the  bottom  being  from  100  to 
155  feet,  about  15  feet  and  about  40  feet  respectively.  The  results  are  condensed 
in  Table  XI. 

TABLE  XI 

PERCENTAGE   OF   LAND   WATER   AT   DIFFERENT  POINTS  ACROSS  THE  HUDSON  AT  FORT 

WASHINGTON  POINT 


Time 

Current 

200  feet  from  west  shore 

Mid-stream 

100  feet  from  east  shore 

Surface 

Mid-depth 

Bottom 

Surface 

Mid-depth 

Bottom 

Surface 

Mid-depth 

Bottom 

11.10A.M. 

Flood 

40 

40 

38 

11.25A.M. 

Flood 

50 

42 

46 

11.35A.M. 

Flood 

48 

40 

40 

12.05  P.M. 

Flood 

44 

40 

40 

12.20  P.M. 

Slack 

48 

44 

40 

12.45  P.M. 

Flood 

44 

40 

40 

1  .  10  P.M. 

Ebb 

42 

40 

40 

1.40  P.M. 

Ebb 

44 

40 

40 

1.45P.M. 

Ebb 

44 

42 

40 

2.10  P.M. 

Ebb 

42 

38 

38 

2.40  P.M. 

Ebb 

44               42 

42 

2.55  P.M. 

Ebb 

48 

44 

42 

3.00  P.M. 

Ebb 

50 

40 

40 

3.10P.M. 

Ebb 

50 

50 

48 

3.25  P.M. 

Ebb 

50 

44 

44 

3.40  P.M. 

Ebb 

•• 

52 

46 

44 

The  average  percentages  of  land  water  were  :  West  side  43.7,  mid-stream  42.7,  east  side  40.5. 


SALINITY  OF  THE  WATERS 


531 


The  average  percentages  of  land  water  were:  West  side  43.7,  midstream  42.7, 
east  side  40.5. 

Harlem  River.  Two  series  of  surface  samples  were  collected  from  the  Harlem 
river  July  15,  1909,  one  at  the  end  of  the  ebb  and  one  at  the  first  of  the  flood  current. 
The  results  are  condensed  in  Table  XII. 


TABLE  XII 

PERCENTAGE  OF  LAND  WATEK  IN  THE  HARLEM  RIVER  JULY  15,  1909 


Time 

Location 

Per  Cent. 

12  30  P  M 

East  109th  street  

34 

1  25  PM 

East  155th  street  

36 

1  50  PM 

East  207th  street  

36 

2  15  PM 

38 

Flood  current     

3  30  P  M. 

Spuyten  Duy  vil  creek  at  Spuyten  Duy  vil  

64 

3.45  PM. 

East  207th  street  

44 

4  10  P.M. 

36 

4  50  P  M. 

East  109th  street  

32 

The  marked  difference  which  existed  between  the  samples  collected  at  Spuyten 
Duyvil  probably  was  due  to  the  first  sample  containing  water  from  the  East  river, 
while  the  second,  which  was  collected  an  hour  and  a  quarter  later,  probably  contained 
mostly  Hudson  river  water.  At  One  Hundred  and  Ninth  street  the  sample  in  each 
case  was,  apparently,  East  river  water. 

East  River  and  Long  Island  Sound.  Numerous  tests  of  salinity  were  made  of  the 
water  of  the  East  river.  The  most  important  of  these  are  given  in  Table  XIII. 


532  DATA    COLLECTED 

TABLE  XIII 

PERCENTAGE  OF  LAND  WATER  IN  THE  EAST  RIVER,  DECEMBER,  1909 


Date,  1909 


December  16 


December  20 


December  21 


December  22 


December  23 


Time 


.20  A.M. 
.30A.M. 
.00  A.M 
.30  A.M. 
.40  A.M. 
.30  P.M. 
50P.M. 
.60  P.M. 
.40A.M. 
.10  A.M. 
.35  P.M. 
.35  A.M. 
.45  P.M. 
.25  P.M. 
.10  A.M. 
.15  A.M. 
.45A.M. 
.30  P.M. 
.20  P.M. 
.45  P.M. 
.50  A.M. 
.40  P.M. 


Current 


Flood 

Flood 

Flood 

Flood 

Flood 

Ebb 

Ebb 

Ebb 

Flood 

Flood 

Flood 

Slack 

Flood 

Flood 

Ebb 

Ebb 

Flood 

Flood 

Flood 

Flood 

Ebb 

Ebb 


Location 


Off  Ferry  dock,  Governors  Island. .  42 

Brooklyn  Bridge 70 

Qucensboro  Bridge,  west  channel .  .  65 

West  of  Randalls  Island 26 

Hell  Gate 40 

College  Point 90 

Throgs  Neck 120 

Execution  Rocks 158 

Brooklyn  Bridge 63 

Queensboro  Bridge 75 

Throgs  Neck 60 

East  83d  street 43 

Hell  Gate 48 

Tallman  Island 48 

Classon  Point 43 

Hunts  Point 30 

Off  HuntsPoint 34 

Off  Classon  Point 42 

Off  Whitestone  Light 45 

Throgs  Neck 105 

Throga  Neck 43 

Stepping  Stones. 74 


Depth 


Surface 


28 
32 
32 
28 
30 
22 
20 
16 
20 
20 
10 
16 
20 
16 
14 
16 
14 
18 
16 
14 
10 
12 


Mid-depth 


30 
30 
32 
28 
32 
20 
18 
16 


Bottom 

28 
30 
32 
24 
32 
22 
16 
16 
12 

6 
10 
14 
18 
14 
12 
14 
12 
14 
14 
12 

8 
10 


The  currents  in  the  lower  East  river  cause  a  rather  thorough  mixing  of  the  water 
but  toward  the  Sound  a  difference  between  the  surface  and  bottom  is  observable. 
There  is,  in  general,  a  decrease  in  laud  water  toward  the  east.  This  is  well  illus- 
trated in  a  series  of  samples  taken  through  Long  Island  Sound  and  the  East  river 
April  13  and  15,  1909.  All  the  samples  were  collected  at  the  surface.  Table  XIV 
gives  the  results  in  condensed  form. 


SALINITY  OF  THE  WATERS 


533 


GREENPORT  HARBOR 
GARDINER'S   BAY 
MULFORDS  POINT 
ROCKY    POINT 
MORTONS   POINT 
DUCK   POINT 
JACOBS     LANDING 
ROANOKE  LANDING 
HERODS    POINT 
WOODVILLE  LANDING 
MT  MISERY  POINT 
OFF  SMITHTOWN  BAY 
EATONS   POINT 
LLOYDS    POINT 
MATINICOCK  POINT 
PROSPECT   POINT 
THROGS  NECK 
CLASSONS  POINT 
WILLIAMSBURGH  BR 


10 


20 


30 


40 


PER 


CENT 


OF 


LAND        WATER 


PERCENTAGE  OFLAND- WATER 

IN 
LONG  ISLAND  SOUND  AND  THE  EAST  RIVER 


534  DATA  COLLECTED 

TABLE  XIV 

PERCENTAGE  OF  LAND  WATER  IN  LONG  ISLAND  SOUND  AND  THE  EAST  RIVER 

APRIL  13  AND  15,  1909 


Date,  1909 

Time 

Current 

Location 

Per  Cent. 
Land  Water 

April  13  

5.00  A.M. 

Ebb 

Greenport  harbor  i 

10 

8.00  A.M. 

Ebb 

Rocky  Point  

10 

9.00  A.M. 

Ebb 

Hortons  Point  

12 

11.00A.M. 

Flood 

Jacobs  Landing  

12 

12.00M. 

Flood 

Roanoke  Landing  

14 

1.00  P.M. 

Flood 

Herods  Point  

14 

2.00P.M. 

Flood 

Woodville  Landing  

16 

3.00  P.M. 

Flood 

Mount  Misery  Point  

18 

April  15         

4.15A.M. 

Flood 

Smithtown  bay  

20 

5.00A.M. 

Flood 

Eatong  Point  

20 

6.00A.M. 

Flood 

Lloyds  Point  

22 

7.00A.M. 

Flood 

Matinicock  Point  

24 

8  00  A.M. 

Ebb 

Prospect  Point  

26 

9.00  A.M. 

Ebb 

Throgs  Neck  

30 

10  00  A.M. 

Ebb 

Classon  Point  

36 

11.00A.M. 

Ebb 

Williamsburg  bridge  

40 

CHAPTER    XIV 

CONDITION  OF  THE  SEWERS  OF  MANHATTAN  AS  SHOWN 

BY  INSPECTIONS 

Early  in  the  year  1910,  an  inspection  of  the  principal  sewers  of  Manhattan  was 
made  hy  the  Metropolitan  Commission  in  co-operation  with  the  Bureau  of  Sewers. 
The  conditions  found  are  briefly  summarized  in  the  following  pages. 

The  sewers  were  entered  at  two  hundred  and  forty-six  places.  The  results  were 
recorded  on  blank  forms  supplied  for  the  purpose.  It  was  found  that  in  many  cases 
there  had  been  a  settlement  of  the  sewer  resulting  in  a  crack  in  the  centre  of  the  arch. 
House  connections  to  the  sewers  were  often  poorly  made  and  bricks  had  fallen  out 
around  the  pipe  at  the  connection.  The  marginal  sewers  were  in  need  of  cleaning. 
Black  mud  varying  in  depth  up  to  three  feet  was  found,  which  in  many  cases  was  in 
a  putrefactive  condition,  giving  off  bubbles  of  foul  gases  when  disturbed.  A  few  seri- 
ous cases  of  erosion  were  found.  The  grade  of  many  sewers  was  flat  and  not  sufficient 
to  prevent  fouling  and  septic  action.  In  several  cases  bad  breaks  were  discovered. 

Equipment  and  Method  of  Inspection.  The  principal  trunk  sewers  and  their  im- 
portant connections  were  inspected  at  intervals  of  about  two  blocks.  It  was  the  custom 
to  enter  a  manhole  at  or  near  a  street  intersection  and  go  through  the  sewer  to  the 
next  manhole,  usually  a  distance  of  about  sixty  feet.  One  of  the  men  of  the  Bureau 
of  Sewers  went  ahead  of  the  observer  and  one  followed  in  the  rear.  An  electric  flash 
light  was  used  to  illuminate  the  sewer  and  a  small  two-foot  iron  rod  was  carried  to 
make  examinations  of  the  invert  and  sides  of  the  sewer.  Table  I  contains  a  list  of 
the  outlets  of  the  sewers  inspected. 


536 


DATA  COLLECTED 


TABLE  I 

OUTLETS  OF  SEWEBS  INSPECTED 


East  River 

Hudson  River 

Harlem  River 

Roosevelt  street 

Dyckman  street 

135th  street 

Oliver  street 

171st  street 

151st  street 

Jefferson  street 

130th  street 

20  1st  street 

Rivington  street 

129th  street 

14th  street 

96th  street 

13th  street 

80th  street 

21st  street 

66th  street 

33d  street 

42d  street 

42d  street 

26th  street 

49th  street 

23d  street 

62d  street 

20th  street 

74th  street 

17th  street 

79th  street 

Clarkson  street 

95th  street 

Canal  street 

106th  street 

110th  street 

Note.     In  addition  to  the  above  mentioned  sewers,  inspections  were  made  of  the  marginal  sowers  below  Fourteenth  street  on 
ths  west  side  and  b.-low  Jackson  street  on  the  cast  side. 

Erosion.  Few  cases  where  the  bricks  of  the  invert  were  actually  worn  away 
were  found.  In  a  few  places  in  the  upper  west  side  of  Manhattan  the  up-stream  edges 
of  the  bricks  were  rounded  off  as  a  result  of  high  velocity  of  sewage. 

In  a  large  number  of  the  sewers  the  mortar  was  worn  from  the  joints  in  the  brick- 
work of  the  invert.  Sometimes  the  mortar  has  been  worn  away  only  to  a  slight  depth 
while  at  other  places  it  has  been  cut  out  by  the  sewage  to  the  full  depth  of  the  brick. 
Table  II  gives  the  location  and  nature  of  the  erosion. 


Sewer  Inspecting  Gang.     Inspectors  for  the  Metropolitan  Commission  went  through  many  of  the  sewers  in  Manhattan 

in  order  to  determine  their  condition 


Interior  of  a  New  York  sewer  showing  broken  walls.     Many  of  the  old 
sewers  were  poorly  built  and  some  are  in  danger  of  collate 


Obstruction  of  sewer  consisting  of  two  transversely  laid  water  pipes.     In  many  places  the  sewers  of  Manhattan 
have  been  broken  into  and  olatructed  by  pipes,  beams,  walls,  etc. 


CONDITION  OF  THE   SEWERS  OP  MANHATTAN  537 

TABLE  II 

EXAMPLES  OF  EROSION 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Conditions  Found 

On 

At 

17 
72 
73 
119 
123 
124 

Henry  street  

/Bricks  in  invert  eroded  in  one  case  to  depth  of  about 
\    f-inch 
/Edges  of  bricks  in  invert  and  "sides  of  sewer  rounded 
\     off  on  up-stream  side 

Bricks  rounded  off  by  erosion 
Up-stream  edge  of  bricks  rounded  off  f-inch 
Up-stream  edges  of  bricks  rounded  off  J-inch 
Up-stream  edges  of  bricks  rounded  off  i-inch 

63d  street 

63d  street 

165th  street  

Fort  Washington  avenue  . 

130th  street 

130th  street  

j  150th  street  east  of  River-\ 

Steam.  Two  well  defined  areas  in  which  steam  is  present  exist.  These  areas 
occur  in  the  parts  of  the  city  where  there  are  large  buildings  used  for  office  and 
business  purposes.  In  these  areas  steam  almost  constantly  issues  from  the  manholes 
in  the  streets  and  often  from  the  openings  to  the  catch  basins  and  is  a  nuisance  to 
passers-by,  and  a  source  of  danger  to  employees  of  the  sewer  department.  It  is  im- 
possible to  inspect  some  sewers  because  of  the  presence  of  steam. 

Deposits.  The  grade  of  many  of  the  Manhattan  sewers  is  necessarily  flat  and  in 
most  of  these  deposits  were  found.  The  marginal  sewers  contain  foul  black  mud 
and  those  in  the  lower  east  side  of  Manhattan  Island  carry  much  household  waste 
consisting  of  paper,  rags,  grease,  etc.  In  several  of  the  Harlem  sewers  there  are  ex- 
tensive deposits  of  marble  dust  from  stone-working  plants.  In  the  Nagle  avenue 
sewer  there  is  a  deposit  of  sand  and  gravel  about  30  inches  deep  which  is  said  to  have 
been  washed  in  during  the  construction  of  the  sewer. 

In  this  connection  it  is  important  to  note  that  sticks,  stones,  etc.,  have  evidently 
been  dumped  through  manholes  when  snow  has  been  disposed  of  by  putting  it  into  the 
sewers.  Many  examples  were  found  where  material  introduced  in  this  way  made  an 
obstruction  and  held  back  lighter  material,  thus  forming  a  deposit  which  otherwise 
would  not  exist. 

It  was  observed  in  some  cases  that  there  were  deposits  of  material  that  looked 
like  street  cleanings  beneath  manholes  and  that  there  was  less  depth  of  deposit  in 
the  sewers  at  points  removed  from  them.  This  suggested  that  the  employees  of  the 
Street  Cleaning  Department  had  disposed  of  the  sweepings  from  the  streets  by  putting 
them  in  the  sewers. 


538 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Extensive  deposits  of  grease  were  found  covering  the  arch  of  many  of  the  sewers 
of  the  lower  east  side ;  this  grease  in  many  cases  was  hung  with  festoons  of  mold,  called 
"  lace  curtains  "  by  the  sewer  men  from  their  draping  effect  and  white  color.  This 
deposit  had  a  maximum  thickness  of  one  foot  in  the  Jefferson  street  sewer  at  Water 
street. 

In  the  Washington  Heights  district  there  is  an  extensive  infiltration  of  ground 
water  which  results  in  the  deposit  of  a  reddish  brown  material  on  the  sides  and  arch 
of  the  sewer.  The  maximum  thickness  of  this  deposit  is  about  one  inch.  Table  III 
gives  the  nature,  amounts  and  location  of  the  principal  deposits  found  in  the  sewers. 

TABLE  III  i 

DEPOSITS  IN  THE  SEWERS 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Conditions  Found 

On 

At 

3 
4 
8 
18 
19 
35 
36 
38 
42 
43 
44 
54 
55 
62 
89 
97 
102 

12 
48 
56 
57 
97 

QBE 

Roosevelt  street  

ASE 

West  of  Cherry  street  
South  

Grease,  thickness,  6  inches 
Sand  and  gravel,  10  inches 
Gravel,  etc.,  slight 
Grease 
Grease,  maximum  thickness,  1  foot 
Gravel,  etc.,  3  inches 
Grease,  maximum  thickness,  2  inches 
Grease,  maximum  thickness,  3  inches 
Grease,  thickness,  1  inch 
Grease,  thickness,  1  inch  to  2  inches 

Grease 

/Mud  and  gravel,  6  inches 
\Grease,  about  3  inches 

Grease,  thickness,  4  inches 
Grease,  thickness,  f-inch 
Grease,  thickness,  J-inch 

Grease,  in  patches,  1  inch  thick 

/Grease,  deposits  look  like  hornets'  nests.     Maximum 
\    thickness,  6  inches 

Dam  formed  18  inches  high 
Stones  and  debris,  depth,  1  foot 
A  5-pound  rock  in  sewer  at  manhole 
An  8-pound  flagstone  in  sewer  at  manhole 
Stones,  rags,  etc.,  depth,  1  foot 

Roosevelt  street        

South     .                  

Jefferson  street  

South  of  Monroe  street  .  .  . 
Water  street   

14th  street        

Avenue  C  

14th  street 

18th  street  

Avenue  A  

18th  street 

Avenue  B          

18th  street  

Avenue  C  

33d  street 

Marginal  street  

33d  street 

First  avenue 

42d  street  .  .  '   

Third  avenue  

95th  street                   ,    . 

First  avenue 

110th  street 

135th  street      

Fifth  avenue  

PROBABLY  FROM  SNOW  D 

Mulberry  street  
22d  street  

UMPED  INTO  THE  SEWER 

Park  street  

First  avenue  

34th  street  .    .             ... 

First  avenue  

34th  street  

Second  avenue  

110th  street  

Second  avenue  

CONDITION  OF  THE  SEWEBS  OF  MANHATTAN 
TABLE  III— Continued 


539 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Conditions  Found 

On 

At 

3 

22 
46 
08 
71 
87 
96 
97 
106 
109 
110 
111 
114 
121 
130 
133 
135 
146 
151 
154 
168 
170 
183 
184 
185 
187 
190 
191 
194 
198 
200 
202 
203 
204 

OTHER 

DEPOSITS 

Gravel  and  sand,  depth  11  inches 
Brick,  clinker,  etc.,  depth  12  inches 
Mud  and  cinders,  depth  12  inches 
Five  inches  of  cement 
Broken  manhole  cover 
Mud;  cinders,  etc.,  depth  12  inches 
Rags,  stone,  brick,  mortar,  depth  8  inches 
Rags,  stone,  brick,  depth  1  foot 
Mud,  depth  2  to  3  feet 
Sand  and  gravel,  depth  2  to  3  feet 
Sand  and  gravel,  depth  3  feet 
Mud  and  sand,  depth  15  inches 
Reddish  incrustation,  1  J  inches  thick 

Mushroom-like  growths  on  sides  of  sewer 

/Reddish  brown  and  whitish  incrustations,  thickness  J 
\     inch 

Substance  like  mortar  on  invert,  depth  2  inches 

Marble  dust,  depth  16  inches,  from  stone  yard 

/Gravel  and  mud,  depth  3  to  12  inches,  evidently  came 
\     in  through  old  house  connection 

Mud  and  gravel,  depth  6  to  12  inches 
1  10-pound  stones  on  invert 
JHeavy  stones  and  house  wastes,  depth  up  to  12  inches 

Mud,  depth  18  inches 

fGravel  and  wastes  from  West  Washington  Market, 
\    depth  13  inches 

Mud,  depth  2  feet 
Mud,  depth  18  inches 
Mud,  depth  8  inches 
Mud,  depth  22  inches 
Mud,  depth  12  inches 
Mud,  rags,  etc.,  depth,  8  inches 
11  inches,  mud 
10  inches,  mud 
8  inches,  mud 
12  inches,  mud 
10  inches,  mud,  rags,  etc. 

Rivington  street  
21st  street  

Marginal  street  

67th  street  

East  of  Third  avenue.  .  . 

64th  street 

95th  street  

Second  avenue  

110th  street  

West  of  Third  avenue  .  .  . 
East  of  Second  avenue.  . 
Eighth  avenue  

110th  street  

147th  street  

Academy  street  

East  of  Nagle  avenue  .  .  . 
Nagle  avenue     ... 

Broadway  

Riverside  drive  
Amsterdam  avenue  .... 

J  mile  north  of  165th  street 
100th  street 

96th  street  

Riverside  drive  . 

104th  street  

East  of  Second  avenue  .  . 
69th  street 

Broadway  

Ninth  avenue  

42d  street  

j'100  feet  west  of  Eleventh 
"!     avenue  

Clarkson  street  

J300  feet  west   of   Varick 
\    street  

Canal  street  

West  of  Lafayette  street.  . 
Gansevoort  street  
Bethune  street 

West  street  

West  street  

West  street  

West  street  

West  Houston  street  
Springstreet  

West  street  

West  street  

Franklin  street  

West  of  Church  street  .... 

West  street  

West  street  

West  street  

South  of  Vesey  street  .... 
North  of  Cortlandt  street  . 

West  street  

West  street  

540 


DATA   COLLECTED 
TABLE  111— Continued 


Inspection 
No. 

Location. 

Conditions  Found 

On 

At 

206 
214 
215 
216 
218 
219 
225 
226 
227 
228 
229 
235 
237 
241 
243 
246 

OLD 

West  street  

DEPOSITS 

South  of  Rector  street  .  .  . 
Clinton  street  
North  side  Rutgers  slip.  .  . 
South  side  Pike  slip  
Catherine  slip  

18  inches,  mud  and  house  wastes 
12  inches,  mud 
12  inches,  mud 
28  inches,  mud,  rags,  etc. 
10  inches,  mud 
1  1  inches,  mud 
10  inches,  mud 
18  inches,  mud 
10  inches,  mud 
12  inches,  mud 

21  inches,  mud 

fOld  house  connection  has  pile  of  dirt  one  foot  high 
\     in  front  of  it 

18  inches,  mud,  rags,  etc. 
Mud,  gravel,  bricks,  etc.,  12  inches. 

9  inches,  mud 

{Pile  of  mortar  and  brick  beneath  catch  basin  con- 
\     nection.     Height  of  pile  18  inches. 

South  street 

South  street  

South  street  
South  street  

South  street  

James  slip     

South  street  

South  of  Peck  slip  

South  street  
South  street 

Fulton  street  

South  side  Maiden  lane.    . 
North  side  of  Wall  street  . 
North  side  of  Old  slip  .... 
East  of  Avenue  A  , 

South  street  

South  street  •  • 

15th  street  . 

15th  street  

West  of  Avenue  C  

Avenue  C  

South  of  9th  street 

2d  street  . 

West  of  Avenue  B 

Fulton  street    

William  street  

Odors.  Except  where  there  was  some  local  odor  that  was  very  marked,  the  odor 
encountered  was  the  distinctive,  musty  smell  usually  found  in  sewers.  In  the  Canal 
street  sewer  an  odor  of  banana  oil  was  very  noticeable.  Illuminating  gas  was  present 
in  many  cases,  oftentimes  in  such  large  amounts  that  it  was  unsafe  to  light  a  candle. 
In  some  of  the  sewers  containing  putrefactive  mud,  the  odor  of  hydrogen  sulphide 
was  recognized.  A  fecal  odor  was  noticed  chiefly  in  the  sewers  of  the  lower  east 
side,  in  which  district  the  sewage  is  very  concentrated.  Table  IV  gives  the  nature 
and  location  of  the  most  pronounced  local  odors  observed. 


CONDITION  OF   THE   SEWERS  OF   MANHATTAN 

TABLE  IV 

EXAMPLES   OF   Loi'.U,   ODORS 


541 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Remarks 

On 

At 

18 
19 
22 
26 
27 
35 
36 
38 
58 
68 
69 
76 
77 
80 
81 
86 
87 
88 
90 
91 
92 
95 
99 
101 
106 
127 
128 
138 
143 
148 
170 
171 

Jefferson  street  
Jefferson  street  

Monroe  street  

Strong  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Strong  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Strong  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Slight  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Slight  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Strong  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Strong  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Illuminating  gas 
Strong  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Strong  fecal  odor 
Strong  fecal  odor 
Sewer  gas,  strong 
Strong  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Sewer  gas,  strong 
Illuminating  gas  and  sewer  gas 
Hops  and  brewery  wastes 
Hops  and  brewery  wastes 
Strong  fecal  odor 
Odor  of  hops  in  sewage  at  outlet 
Fecal  odor 
Hydrogen  sulphide 
Fecal  odor 
Strong  fecal  odor 
Illuminating  gas 
Hydrogen  sulphide  and  fecal  odor 
Fecal  odor 
Hydrogen  sulphide,  sewer  gas,  illuminating  gas 
Illuminating  gas  and  gasolene 
Gasolene,  moderate 
Strong  illuminating  gas 
Banana  oil 
Banana  oil 

Water  street  

Mangin  street  

Rivington  street  

Attorney  street  ... 
Suffolk  street  
East  of  Avenue  B  
East  of  Avenue  C  ....... 
\venue  D 

Rivington  street  

14th  street  .          

1  4th  street                

34th  street  

West  of  Third  avenue  .... 
East  of  Third  avenue  .... 
Second  avenue  
Lexington  avenue  
East  of  Third  avenue  ... 
East  of  Park  avenue.  .... 
East  of  Third  avenue  .... 
92d  street 

67th  street  ....          

67th  street    

74th  street  
74th  street    .  .          

79th  street  
79th  street  

95tb  street  

Second  avenue  

96th  street    

Second  avenuy  

95th  street  

East  river  

106th  street  
106th  street         

East  of  Fifth  avenue  .... 
East  of  Park  avenue  
Madison  avenue  

110th  street      

125th  street  

Fifth  avenue  

131st  street  

Fifth  avenue  
Eighth  avenue  
Amsterdam  avenue  
South  of  110th  street 
87th  street 

147th  street 

129th  street  

Amsterdam  avenue  
Park  avenue 

81st  street 

Broadway 

.66th  street 

Amsterdam  avenue 

Canal  street 

West  of  Lafayette  street  .  . 
Church  street  . 

Canal  street 

542 


DATA   COLLECTED 
TABLE  IV— Continued. 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Remarks 

On 

At 

176 
187 
190 
199 
212 
213 
215 
221 
225 
226 
227 
228 
230 
236 
237 
242 

20th  street  

West  of  Third  avenue.  .  .  . 
Leroy  street  

Strong  odor  of  illuminating  gas 
Hydrogen  sulphide 
Fecal  odor 
Fecal  odor 
Fecal  odor 
Fecal  odor 
Hydrogen  sulphide 
Fecal  odor 
Hydrogen  sulphide 
Hydrogen  sulphide 
Hydrogen  sulphide 
Hydrogen  sulphide 
Hydrogen  sulphide 
Illuminating  gas 
Illuminating  gas 
Fecal  odor 

West  street   

West  street  

Spring  street  

West  street  

South  of  Franklin  street.  . 
South  of  Jackson  street  .  . 
Gouverneur  slip 

South  street             

South  street  

South  street 

North  side  of  Rutgers  slip  . 
Third  avenue 

Seventh  street  

South  street  

South  of  Peck  slip  .  . 

South  street  

Fulton  street  . 

South  street  

South  side  Maiden  lane 
North  side  Wall  street  .  .  . 
Coenties  slip 

South  street  

South  street     

15th  street  

Avenue  B  

15th  street  

West  of  Avenue  C  

2d  street  .  . 

East  of  Avenue  A  .  . 

Obstructions.  In  some  cases  water  and  gas  pipes  pierce  the  sewers.  At  Sixth 
avenue  and  Ninth  street  the  sewer  is  obstructed  by  a  20-inch  main  and  a  12-inch  pipe 
directly  below  it.  Ou  Twenty-sixth  street  east  of  Sixth  avenue  about  75  per  cent,  of 
the  sewer  area  is  taken  up  by  an  obstruction  of  iron  beams  and  brickwork.  On 
Tenth  avenue  near  Twenty-third  street  the  wood  forms  put  in  to  build  the  arch  of 
the  sewer  and  a  curtain  wall  supporting  them  were  found  still  in  place  and  nearly 
obstructing  the  whole  sewer  area. 

Table  V  shows  the  location  and  nature  of  the  obstructions  discovered. 

TABLE  V 

OBSTRUCTIONS 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Condition  Found 

On 

At 

153 
161 
162 

42d  street  ...                  j 

75    feet    east    of    Tenth 
avenue  

J-Iron  beams  project  down  2J  feet  below  arch 
Iron  beams  project  down  14  inches  below  arch 
Iron  beams  project  down  18  inches  below  arch 

23d  street  

East  of  Eleventh  avenue. 
West  of  Ninth  avenue.  .  .  . 

23d  street  

CONDITION  OF  THE   SEWEKS  OF  MANHATTAN 
TABLE  V — Continued 


543 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Condition  Found 

On 

At 

162 
1(36 
171 
172 
180 
192 
195 
222 
224 
231 
237 
239 

23d  street 

West  of  Ninth  avenue.  .  .  . 
9th  street  

A  12-inch  water  pipe  crosses  sewer 

JA  12-inch  water  main  with  a  20-inch  pipe  above,  cross 
\     sewer  here 

A  12-inch  pipe  projects  10  inches  below  arch 

[Iron  beams  project  18  inches  below  arch.     12-inch  pipe 
\     here,  its  bottom  is  24  inches  below  crown  of  arch 
/About  75  per  cent,  of  sewer  area  taken  up  by  brick 
\     obstruction  extending  19  inches  below  arch  of  sewer 

A  12-inch  pipe  crosses  sewer  2J  feet  above  invert 

/A  6-inch  iron  house  pipe  projects  into  sewer  for  8 
{     inches  above  invert 

A  6-inch  water  main  projects  1  foot  below  arch 

/A  1-inch  pipe  from  hydrant  projects  2  feet  into  sewer 
\     below  arch 

A  6-inch  pipe  projects  5  inches  below  arch 

Top  of  12-inch  water  pipe  is  5  inches  below  arch 

/Sewer  obstructed  by  wood  forms  and  brick  work  sup- 
\     porting  them 

Church  street  

Canal  street  

East  of  Sullivan  street.  .  . 
East  of  Sixth  avenue  
East  of  W.  Broadway  .... 
East  of  W.  Broadway  .... 
Avenue  C  

96th  street 

Worth  street  

8th  street 

8th  street  

East  of  Lewis  street  
Moore  street  
West  of  Avenue  C  

North  of  23d  street  

Cracks.  A  large  number  of  the  sewers  inspected  had  cracks  in  the  centre  of  the 
arch.  In  a  few  cases,  as  on  Forty-second  street  near  Eleventh  avenue,  there  were 
two  longitudinal  cracks  in  the  arch  ahout  two  feet  apart,  resulting  in  a  depression 
and  flattening  of  the  brickwork  between  the  two  parallel  cracks.  The  cracks  varied 
from  a  width  scarcely  discernible  up  to  a  width  of  one  and  one-half  inch.  The 
cracks  were  usually  widest  in  the  circular  sewers  though  there  were  large  cracks  in 
many  of  those  with  an  egg-shaped  cross-section. 

Table  VI  gives  the  location  and  nature  of  the  cracks  observed. 

TABLE  VI 

CRACKS 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Conditions  Found 

On 

At 

35 
41 
42 
62 
76 
78 

14th  street  ,  .  .  . 

East  of  Avenue  B 

Crack  10  feet  long  ;  J-inch  wide  in  centre  of  arch 

Crack  J-inch  wide,  whole  length  of  section 

/Many   cracks  ;   practically  whole  length  of  section  ; 
\     width,  i  inch  to  1  inch 
/Crack  in  arch  all  along  section  ;    width,  J  inch  to 
\     J  inch 

Crack  in  arch  ;  width,  J  inch  to  i  inch 
Crack  in  arch  ;  width,  J  inch  to  J  inch 

18th  street  

East  of  First  avenue  
Avenue  A 

18th  street  

42d  street  

East  of  Third  avenue  

74th  street  

74th  street  

DATA   COLLECTED 
TABLE  \l—Voiitiiim;I 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Conditions  Found 

On 

At 

80 
82 
92 
104 
106 
114 
115 
117 
129 
130 
138 
139 
141 
150 
154 
179 
182 
185 
193 
196 
197 
222 
223 
224 
233 
236 
238 
246 

79th  street  

East  of  Park  avenue   .... 

Crack  in  arch  ;  width,  J  inch 

Crack  in  arch  ;  width,  J  inch 

{Crack  in  arch  all  along  section  ;  width,  }  inch  to  1J 
\     inch 

Crack  in  arch  j  inch  wide  ;  length,  30  feet 
Two  cracks  in  arch,  about  2  feet  apart,  J-inch  wide 
Crack  in  arch  ;  width,  J-inch 
Slight  crack  in  arch  of  sewer 

J-inch  crack  in  arch  50  feet  long 

Crack  in  arch  J-inch  to  J-inch  wide  ;  length  about  30 
feet 
Crack  in  arch,  J-inch    to  J-inch  wide  over  most  of 
section  inspected 
Crack  in  arch  J-inch  to  A  -inch  wide  ;  length  about  30 
{     feet 

/Crack  in  arch  J-inch  to  j-inch  wide 

Crack  in  arch  J  inch  to  J  inch  over  most  of  section 
inspected 

Crack  in  arch,  J-inch  wide,  length  20  feet 
>Two  parallel  cracks  in  arch,  width  J-iuch  to  1J  inch 
A  J-ineh  crack  in  arch,  length  10  feet 
Crack  in  top  of  15-inch  vitrified  pipe  sewer 
A  J-inch  crack  in  arch,  length  about  20  feet 
A  J-inch  crack  in  arch  over  20  feet  of  section  inspected 
Crack  in  centre  of  arch,  1  inch  wide,  30  feet  long 
Most  all  joints  of  arch  opened  for  J-inch  to  J-inch 
Cracks  up  to  }-inch  wide 
Cracks  up  to  J-ineh 
Cracks  J-inch  to  J-inch  over  most  of  section  inspected 
Crack  J  to  J-inch  wide,  length  20  feet 
Bad  cracks  J-inch  to  1  inch  wide  over  whole  section 
J-inch  crack  in  arch 
J-inch  crack  in  arch,  length  30  feet 

79th  street  

East  of  Second  avenue.  .  . 
East  of  Park  avenue  

106th  street 

145th  street 

147th  street        

Eighth  avenue 

Sherman  avenue 

Broadway  

Dyckman  street  

Amsterdam  avenue  
Amsterdam  avenue  
Park  avenue  

105th  street 

100th  street 

87th  street  

Between   89th  and    90th 
streets  

West  End  avenue    

85th  street  

South  of  46th  street  
/100  feet  west  of  Eleventh 

26th  street 

West  of  Seventh  avenue. 
Opposite  Pier  53 

West  street     .  .  . 

Charles  street  

Franklin  street  

West  of  Church  street  .  .  . 
West  of  Broadway 

Worth  street  .  . 

Worth  street 

West  of  Broadway 

8th  street  

Avenue  C  

8th  street 

East  of  Avenue  D  .  .  . 

Slh  street 

East  of  Lewis  street  
East  of  Fifth  avenue  
Avenue  B     

15th  street  

15th  street  

Second  avenue  
Fulton  street  

South  of  85th  street  
William  street.  .  •.  

Defective  Brickwork.  In  many  oases  the  cracks  previously  mentioned  have  re- 
sulted in  such  an  excessive  spreading  of  the  joints  that  a  strip  two  or  three  bricks 
Avide  of  the  inner  ring  of  the  arch  has  dropped  out. 

Several  cases  were  observed,  as,  for  example,  at  Avenue  C  and  Ninth  street,  in 
which  both  rings  of  the  brickwork  have  fallen  in  as  well  as  has  the  material  of  the 
street  above,  at  the  location  mentioned,  exposing  the  granite  paving  blocks. 


Location  of  the  sewer  shown  in  the  cut  below 


Interior  of  a  sewer  showing  dangerous  condition  of  brick  work.     A  number 
calling  for  extensive  and  costly  repairs 


if  such  cases  exist 


Spent  steam  escaping  from  a  sewer  manhole  in  Manhattan.     On  one  day's  inspection  4fi  such  cases  were  noted 

south  of  Chambers  street 


^  Accumulations  of  grease  and  mold  in  a  sewer.      This  condition  occurs  in  certain    tide-locked  sewers  which  drain 

thickly  populated  tenement  districts 


OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


CONDITION  OF  THE   SEWERS  OF   MANHATTAN 


545 


Ou  Eighth  avenue  at  Eighty-ninth  street  a  break  with  an  area  of  about  two 
square  feet  in  the  side  of  the  sewer  was  found;  leading  from  it  were  tunnels  about 
three  inches  in  diameter,  presumably  made  by  sewer  rats.  Several  other  eases  were 
observed  where  the  side  of  the  sewer  was  pierced  by  rat  holes  thus  forming  the  be- 
ginning of  a  still  larger  break. 

Table  VII  gives  the  location  and  extent  of  places  where  defective  brickwork  was 

found. 

TABLE  VII 

DEFECTIVE  BRICKWORK 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Conditions  found 

On 

At 

27 
33 
39 
56 
71 
73 
81 
93 
101 
130 
145 
154 
163 
167 
173 
177 
181 
197 
206 
210 
221 
222 
229 
234 
236 
241 
242 
246 

Hivington  street  
14th  street  

West  of  Suffolk  street  .... 
East  of  First  avenue  

About  10  bricks  fallen  out  of  sewer 

1  3  bricks  out  of  side  of  sewer,  rat  holes  leading  from 
\     break 

4  square  feet  of  bricks  gone  from  side  of  sewer 
Patches  15  square  feet  in  area  out  of  arch  and  sides 
2  or  3  bricks  out  of  side,  rat  holes  leading  from  break 

Defective  brickwork  at  junction  of  sewers 

/Inner  ring  of  arch  fallen  out  of  place,  1  foot  wide  and 
\     30  feet  long 

1  square  foot  gone  from  side  of  sewer 

Rough  brickwork 

\Break  in  side  of  sewer  2  square  feet  in  area,  section 
/     distorted 
\4  square  feet  of  inner  ring  gone  above  manhole,  3 
/     square  feet  gone  below 
\Inner  ring  of  arch  gone,  place  2  feet  wide  and  40  feet 
j     long 
|4  square  feet  gone  in  one  place,  J  square  foot  in 
\    another 

4  square  feet  of  bricks  out  at  junction  of  sewers 

(3  or  4  bricks  have  dropped  out  of  arch,  415-pound  blocks 
\     from  side  of  sewer  have  fallen  out  and  lie  on  invert 
[Areas  of  about  1  square  foot  where  bricks  are  gone 
i     from  arch 
/Both  rings  gone  in  two  places  ;  combined  area  about 
\     15  square  feet.     Inner  ring  gone  in  many  places 
1  In  places  (2  or  3)  bricks  have  dropped  out  of  inner 
\    ring  of  arch 

Bricks  out  of  arch 

Bricks  dropped  out  of  inner  arch  ring  in  5  places 

/2  square  feet  of  invert  gone  (both  rings).      Bricks 
\     gone  from  arch 
/Inner  ring  of  brick  gone  in  many  places.     Both  rings 
\     in  one  case 

Brickwork  uneven 

/Bricks  uneven,  one  course  sticks  out  J-inch  above 
\    lower  3  square  feet  of  brick  in  inner  ring  of  arch  gone 
/In  4  places  bricks  have  dropped  out  of  inner  ring  of 
\     arch 
[Both  rings  gone  in  2  places,  inner  ring  gone  in  many 
\     instances 

In  several  places  bricks  gone  from  inner  ring  of  arch 
4  square  feet  of  brick  in  crown  of  arch  gone 

14th  street  
34th  street  

West  of  First  avenue  
First  avenue  

64th  street  
63d  street  
79th  street  
106th  street 

Avenue  A  
East  of  Third  avenue.  .  .  . 
East  of  Third  avenue.  .  .  . 
Fifth  avenne  

131st  street  

/ 
Eighth  avenue  i 

80th  street  •, 

Between  89th  and  90th 

streets 

New  York    Central    Rail- 
road tracks 

42d  street  j 
23d  street  ... 

100  feet  west  of  Eleventh 
avenue  

East  of  Seventh  avenue.  . 
West  3d  street  
Greenwich  street 

Sixth  avenue  
Canal  street  
20th  street    

East  of  Irving  place  
West  of  Broadway  .  .  .  . 

26th  street  

Worth  street  

West  of  Broadway  . 

West  street  

Between  Rector  and  Morris 
East  of  6th  avenue  
Third  avenue 

13th  street  

7th  street  

8th  street  

Avenue  C  

South  street 

North  side  Old  slip  
West  of  Union  Square.  .  .  . 
Avenue  B  

15th  street 

15th  street  

Avenue  C  

South  of  9th  street 

2d  street  

Fulton  street   ... 

William  street 

546 


DATA   COLLECTED 


Distortion.  Distortions  of  the  original  form  of  the  sewers  were  numerous.  The 
circular  brick  sewers  were  more  distorted  than  those  with  an  egg-shaped  cross  sec- 
tion. The  circular  brick  sewer  on  Twenty-sixth  street  near  Eighth  avenue  is  a  fair 
example  of  distortion  of  an  old  circular  sewer.  Two  measurements  of  the  sewer 
about  20  feet  apart  were  made  as  shown  in  the  following  table : 

1st  2nd 

Height   42  inches  45  inches 

Width   52  inches  52  inches 

Width   greater  than  height  due   to 

distortion   10  inches  7  inches 

In  many  cases  the  distortion  has  apparently  been  caused  by  putting  a  new  arch 
on  an  old  invert,  the  result  oftentimes  being  a  cross  section  that  is  not  symmetrical 
or  as  regular  in  outline  as  it  should  be. 

The  distortion  sometimes  exists  without  any  cracks  of  noticeable  size  and  seems 
to  be  the  result  of  a  small  amount  of  spreading  or  compression  at  all  joints. 

Catch  Basins.  Some  catch  basins  were  found  to  contain  deposits  of  black  mud 
and  street  sweepings  up  to  depths  of  five  feet.  Other  basins  Avere  clean  and  contained 
no  deposits. 

One  catch  basin  at  One  Hundred  and  Sixth  street  east  of  First  avenue  was  found 
to  be  completely  full  of  pieces  of  stone  from  a  stone  Avorking  plant  nearby. 

Table  VIII  gives  the  location  and  deposits  found  in  the  catch  basins  inspected. 

TABLE  VIII 

CONDITION  OK  CATCH  BASINS 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Depth  of  Deposit 

On 

At 

2 
12 
14 
22 
2) 
36 
47 
53 
68 
62 

Roosevelt  street  

New  Bowery 

5  feet 
Recently  cleaned  out 
18  inches 
Slight,  recently  cleaned 
Slight 
21  feet 
Clean 
3  feet 
6  inches 
Clean 

Mulberry  street  

Park  street  ...    . 

Division  street 

Gouverneur  street  
Goerck  street 

Rivington  street  

Rivington  street  

Suffolk  street   

14th  street  

Avenue  C.  . 

22d  street  

Avenue  A 

22d  street  

34th  street  

West  of  Third  avenue.  .  .  . 
Third  avenue.  . 

42d  street.. 

CONDITION  OP  THE   SEWERS  OF  MANHATTAN 
TABLE  VIII— Continued 


547 


Inspection 
No. 

Location 

Conditions  Found 

On 

At 

66 
74 
76 
84 
87 
90 
94 
94 
95 
99 
102 
105 
109 
117 
123 
126 
129 
144 
148 
153 
157 
162 
168 
172 
174 

49th  street                  .    . 

Second  avenue 

16  inches 
3J  feet 
12  inches 
18  inches 
2J  feet 
2  feet 
6  inches 
Full  of  pieces  of  stone  from  stone  yard  opposite 
3  feet 
18  inches 
2  feet 
Clean 
2  feet 
8  inches 
3  feet 
2  feet 
4  feet 
2J  feet 
2  feet 
2  feet 
2  feet 
12  inches 
4  inches 
Basin  clean 
2  feet 

62d  street 

Avenue  A 

74th  street  

Lexington  avenue   

79th  street 

95th  street                  .... 

95th  street  

First  avenue  

106th  street 

106th  street  

East  of  First  avenue  
Madison  avenue  

1  10th  street  

125th  street  

Fifth  avenue  

135th  street  

145th  street             .   .  . 

Nagle  avenue   

Dyckman  street  

Broadway  

Dyckman  street  

130th  street  

Old  Broadway  

129th  street  

Amsterdam  avenue  

104th  street  

80th  street  

Riverside  drive  

66th  street  

Amsterdam  avenue 

42d  street  

Tenth  avenue  

26th  street  

Tenth  avenue.  ...       .... 

23d  street  

Ninth  avenue  .  .  . 

Clarkson  street  

Varick  street  

Canal  street  

17th  street  

Tenth  avenue  

Sewer  Outlets.  Most  of  the  trunk  sewers  inspected  discharge  near  the  pierhead 
line  through  wood  stave  pipe.  At  Tenth  street  there  is  no  adequate  outlet  provided, 
the  sewage  finding  its  way  out  from  behind  a  bulkhead  as  best  it  can.  At  Dyckman 
street  the  outlet  is  through  a  20-inch  vitrified  pipe  beneath  a  building  used  in  the 
summer  as  a  restaurant,  with  a  bath  house  adjoining. 


CHAPTER  XV 


ORGANIZATION  OF  FORCE  EMPLOYED 

Acknowledgments.  The  Metropolitan  Sewerage  Commission,  having  completed  the 
work  required  by  the  Act  under  which  it  was  created,  desires  to  express  its  hearty  appre- 
ciation of  the  ability,  faithfulness  and  industry  of  the  various  technical  assistants  who 
have  been  engaged  under  its  direction  in  the  collection  of  the  data  contained  in  the 
foregoing  pages. 

The  amount  of  work  accomplished  has  been  large,  and  the  conditions  under  which 
it  was  prosecuted,  in  many  cases,  difficult.  It  is  with  pleasure  that  the  Commission 
records  here  its  unqualified  commendation  of  the  loyalty  and  devotion  of  the  members 
of  the  staff  to  their  respective  duties. 

The  organization  of  the  force  employed  since  January,  1908,  was  as  follows: 

TECHNICAL  ASSISTANTS 


Names 

Titles  under  Civil  Service 
Classifications 

Period  of  Service 

Beginning 

Ending 

Kenneth  Allen  

Engineer  •  

July            27,  1908 
February  .    4,  1909 
September  20,  1909 
August        10,  1908 
September    1,  1909 
May            28,  1908 
November  18,  1908 
February      1,  1910 
February    23,  1909 
November  27,  1909 
November  27,  1909 
November  17,  1909 
March           1,  1909 
August        17,  1908 
June           20,  1909 
August       24,  1909 
July            27,  1908 

April  30,  1910 
June  12,  1909 
March  31,  1910 
October  9,  1908 
April  14,  1910 
December  12,  1909 
January  15,  1910 
March  3,  1910 
April  30,  1910 
April  30,  1910 
January  15,  1910 
November  18,  1909 
April  30,  1910 
July  31,  1909 
January  12,  1910 
November  27,  1909 
April  30,  1910 

Wm   B.  Fuller  '.  . 

Engineer  

\V  W   DeBerard  

Assistant  Engineer  

J  E   Hill  

Assistant  Engineer    

Geo  H  Shaw 

John  P.  Fox  

Statistician  '   

D    S    Merritt 

George  Perrine  

Statistician  

Max  L.  Berrey  

Draughtsman  

P.  F.  McClellan  

Engineering  Assistant  

Harold  A.  Brown  

Engineering  Assistant  

R.  M.  Merriman  

Engineering  Assistant  

Payn  B.  Parsons  

Bacteriologist  

Raymond  H.  Pond  

Biologist      .          

R.  N.  Hoyt  

Biologist 

David  Morey  

Chemist  .  .      , 

S.  R.   Keif  

Stenographer  .  -  

550 


DATA   COLLECTED 
SALINOMETER  OBSERVEES 


Names 

Locations  of  Stations 

Period  of  Service 

Beginning 

Ending 

Nelson  L  Ackenuun     

Fort  Wadsworth  

December     1,  1908 
September  26,  1908 
December   12,  1908 
December     1,  1908 
January        7,  1909 
December  11,  1908 
December     1,  1908 
January       6,  1909 
November  27,  1908 
January       1,  1909 
September  18,  1908 
January     15,  1909 

December  31,  1009 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 
December  31,  1909 

Sven  G  Berglund 

Ambrose  Light  

W  W  Byrne 

Fort  Washington 

Edmond  Delattre 

Governors  Island  

Thiogs  Neck             

August  Kjelberg  

Tarrytown  

John  Osterdahl 

Great  Beds  

John  Stone  .-  

Blackwells  Island  

West  Bank  

Chas  Swift 

Governors  Island  ...       .       

Jacob  Walker  

Robbins  Reef  

Mrs  Eliza  McCashin 

Passaic  Light  

BOOB 


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